World Health Organization. WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19: 11 March 2020 2020 [updated March 11, 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19-11-march-2020.
U. S. Food & Drug Administration. COVID-19 Vaccines: The FDA has regulatory processes in place to facilitate the development of COVID-19 vaccines that meet the FDA's rigorous scientific standards. 2021;Retrieved from: https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/covid-19-vaccines.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Social Distancing: Keep your distance to slow the spread [updated May 6, 2020. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/social-distancing.html.
Benke C, Autenrieth LK, Asselmann E, Pané-Farré CA. Lockdown, quarantine measures, and social distancing: associations with depression, anxiety and distress at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic among adults from Germany. Psychiatry Res. 2020;293:113462.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Maslow AH. A theory of human motivation. Psychol Rev. 1943;50:370–96.
Article
Google Scholar
Bowlby J. Attachment and loss, Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books; 1969.
Google Scholar
Sullivan HS. The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York, NY: Norton; 1953.
Google Scholar
Baumeister RF, Leary MR. The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as fundamental human motivation. Psychol Bull. 1995;117:497–529.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Cohen S, Wills TA. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychol Bull. 1985;98(2):310–57.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Floyd K. Human affection exchange: I. Reproductive probability as a predictor of men’s affection with their sons. J Men’s Stud. 2001;10(1):39–50.
Article
Google Scholar
Uchino BN. Understanding the links between social support and physical health: a life-span perspective with emphasis on the separability of perceived and received support. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2009;4(3):236–55.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Boren JP, Veksler AE. A decade of research exploring biology and communication. Commun Res Trends. 2011;30(4):4–31.
Google Scholar
Heinrich LM, Gullone E. The clinical significance of loneliness: a literature review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26(6):695–718.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Cacioppo JT, Hughes ME, Waite LJ, Hawkley LC, Thisted RA. Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Psychol Aging. 2006;21(1):140.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Floyd K, Hesse C. Affection deprivation is conceptually and empirically distinct from loneliness. West J Commun. 2017;81(4):446–65.
Article
Google Scholar
Jeong H, Yim HW, Song YJ, Ki M, Min JA, Cho J, et al. Mental health status of people isolated due to middle east respiratory syndrome. Epidemiol Health. 2016;38:e2016048.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Hawryluck L, Gold WL, Robinson S, Pogorski S, Galea S, Styra R. SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10(7):1206.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Abrams D, Hogg MA, Marques JM. The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion. New York, NY: Psychology Press; 2005.
Google Scholar
Sacco DF, Ismail MM. Social belongingness satisfaction as a function of interaction medium: face-to-face interactions facilitate greater social belonging and interaction enjoyment compared to instant messaging. Comput Human Behav. 2014;36:359–64.
Article
Google Scholar
Holtzman S, DeClerck D, Turcotte K, Lisi D, Woodworth M. Emotional support during times of stress: Can text messaging compete with in-person interactions? Comput Human Behav. 2017;71:130–9.
Article
Google Scholar
Stone LB, Hankin BL, Gibb BE, Abela JRZ. Co-rumination predicts the onset of depressive disorders during adolescence. J Abnorm Psychol. 2011;120(3):752–7.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Jose PE, Wilkins H, Spendelow JS. Does social anxiety predict rumination and co-rumination among adolescents? J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2012;41:86–91.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Twenge JM, Joiner TE, Rogers ML, Martin GN. Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among US adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clin Psychol Sci. 2018;6(1):3–17.
Article
Google Scholar
Shakya HB, Christakis NA. Association of Facebook use with compromised well-being: a longitudinal study. Am J Epidemiol. 2017;185(3):203–11.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Asmundson GJG, Abramowitz JS, Richter AA, Whedon M. Health anxiety: current perspectives and future directions. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2010;12(4):306–12.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. Social Media Fact Sheet: Internet/Broadband | Mobile Technology 2019 [updated June 12, 2019]. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/social-media/.
Sheldon KM, Abad N, Hinsch C. A two-process view of Facebook use and relatedness need-satisfaction: disconnection drives use, and connection rewards it. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2011;100(4):766.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Cauberghe V, Van Wesenbeeck I, De Jans S, Hudders L, Ponnet K. How adolescents use social media to cope with feelings of loneliness and anxiety during COVID-19 lockdown. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2020;24(4):250–7.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Garfin DR. Technology as a coping tool during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic: implications and recommendations. Stress Health. 2020;36(4):555–9.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Holman EA, Thompson RR, Garfin DR, Silver RC. The unfolding COVID-19 pandemic: a probability-based, nationally representative study of mental health in the United States. Sci Adv. 2020;6(42):eabd5390.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Grieve R, Indian M, Witteveen K, Tolan GA, Marrington J. Face-to-face or Facebook: Can social connectedness be derived online? Comput Human Behav. 2013;29(3):604–9.
Article
Google Scholar
Gonzales AL, Hancock JT. Mirror, mirror on my Facebook wall: Effects of exposure to Facebook on self-esteem. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2011;14(1–2):79–83.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Kim J, Lee JER. The Facebook paths to happiness: effects of the number of Facebook friends and self-presentation on subjective well-being. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2011;14(6):359–64.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Oh HJ, Ozkaya E, LaRose R. How does online social networking enhance life satisfaction? The relationships among online supportive interaction, affect, perceived social support, sense of community, and life satisfaction. Comput Human Behav. 2014;30:69–78.
Article
Google Scholar
Steinfield C, Ellison NB, Lampe C. Social capital, self-esteem, and use of online social network sites: a longitudinal analysis. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2008;29(6):434–45.
Article
Google Scholar
Lin LY, Sidani JE, Shensa A, Radovic A, Miller E, Colditz JB, et al. Association between social media use and depression among US young adults. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33(4):323–31.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Keles B, McCrae N, Grealish A. A systematic review: the influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. Int J Adolesc Youth. 2020;25(1):79–93.
Article
Google Scholar
Primack BA, Shensa A, Escobar-Viera CG, Barrett EL, Sidani JE, Colditz JB, et al. Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: a nationally-representative study among US young adults. Comput Human Behav. 2017;69:1–9.
Article
Google Scholar
Becker MW, Alzahabi R, Hopwood CJ. Media multitasking is associated with symptoms of depression and social anxiety. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2013;16(2):132–5.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Hunt MG, Marx R, Lipson C, Young J. No more FOMO: limiting social media decreases loneliness and depression. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2018;37(10):751–68.
Article
Google Scholar
Vogel EA, Rose JP, Roberts LR, Eckles K. Social comparison, social media, and self-esteem. Psychol Pop Media Cult. 2014;3(4):206.
Article
Google Scholar
Nesi J, Prinstein MJ. Using social media for social comparison and feedback-seeking: gender and popularity moderate associations with depressive symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2015;43(8):1427–38.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Arroyo A, Brunner SR. Negative body talk as an outcome of friends’ fitness posts on social networking sites: body surveillance and social comparison as potential moderators. J Appl Commun Res. 2016;44(3):216–35.
Article
Google Scholar
Yang CC. Instagram use, loneliness, and social comparison orientation: interact and browse on social media, but don’t compare. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2016;19(12):703–8.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Mackson SB, Brochu PM, Schneider BA. Instagram: Friend or foe? The application’s association with psychological well-being. New Media Soc. 2019;21(10):2160–82.
Article
Google Scholar
Chao M, Xue D, Liu T, Yang H, Hall BJ. Media use and acute psychological outcomes during COVID-19 outbreak in China. J Anxiety Disord. 2020;74:102248.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Silver RC, Holman EA, Andersen JP, Poulin M, McIntosh DN, Gil-Rivas V. Mental-and physical-health effects of acute exposure to media images of the September 11, 2001, attacks and the Iraq War. Psychol Sci. 2013;24(9):1623–34.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Jungmann SM, Witthöft M. Health anxiety, cyberchondria, and coping in the current COVID-19 pandemic: Which factors are related to coronavirus anxiety? J Anxiety Disord. 2020;73:102239.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Sigurvinsdottir R, Thorisdottir IE, Gylfason HF. The impact of COVID-19 on mental health: the role of locus on control and internet use. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(19):6985.
Article
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Young ME, Norman GR, Humphreys KR. Medicine in the popular press: the influence of the media on perceptions of disease. PLoS ONE. 2008;3(10):e3552.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Hovitz H. Constant exposure to politics via sociam media is bad for your mental health. VICE [Internet]. 2018 May 27, 2020. Available from: https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/8xvdv3/constant-exposure-to-politics-via-social-media-is-bad-for-your-mental-health.
Wong FHC, Liu T, Leung DKY, Zhang AY, Au WSH, Kwok WW, et al. Consuming information related to COVID-19 on social media among older adults and its association with Anxiety, Social Trust in Information, and COVID-safe behaviors: cross-sectional Telephone Survey. J Med Internet Res. 2021;23(2):e26570.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Zhao N, Zhou G. Social Media Use and Mental Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic: moderator role of disaster stressor and mediator role of negative affect. Appl Psychol Health Well-Being. 2020;12:1019–38.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Gao J, Zheng P, Jia Y, Chen H, Mao Y, Chen S, et al. Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-19 outbreak. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(4):e0231924.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Rose AJ. Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Dev. 2002;73(6):1830–43.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Hankin BL, Stone LB, Wright PA. Corumination, interpersonal stress generation, and internalizing symptoms: accumulating effects and transactional influences in a multiwave study of adolescents. Dev Psychopathol. 2010;22:217–35.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Rose AJ, Carlson W, Waller EM. Prospective associations of co-rumination with friendship and emotional adjustment: considering the socioemotional trade-offs of co-rumination. Dev Psychol. 2007;43(4):1019–31.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Stone LB, Mennies RJ, Waller JM, Ladouceur CD, Forbes EE, Ryan ND, et al. Help me feel better! Ecological momentary assessment of anxious youths’ emotion regulation with parents and peers. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2019;47(2):313–24.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Byrd-Craven J, Geary DC, Rose AJ, Ponzi D. Co-ruminating increases stress hormone levels in women. Horm Behav. 2008;53(3):489–92.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Byrd-Craven J, Granger DA, Auer BJ. Stress reactivity to co-rumination in young women’s friendships: cortisol, alpha-amylase, and negative affect focus. J Soc Pers Relationsh. 2011;28(4):469–87.
Article
Google Scholar
Boren JP. Co-rumination partially mediates the relationship between social support and emotional exhaustion among graduate students. Commun Q. 2013;61(3):253–67.
Article
Google Scholar
Rose AJ, Schwartz-Mette RA, Glick GC, Smith RL, Luebbe AM. An observational study of co-rumination in adolescent friendships. Dev Psychol. 2014;50(9):2199.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Veksler AE, Boren JP, Priem J. Social support and physiology: current trends and future directions. In: Floyd K, Weber R, editors. The Handbook of Communication Science and Biology. New York: Routledge; 2020. p. 319–31.
Chapter
Google Scholar
Zhou Y, MacGeorge EL, Myrick JG. Mental health and its predictors during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic experience in the United States. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(17):6315.
Article
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Keshishian AC, Watkins MA, Otto MW. Clicking away at co-rumination: co-rumination correlates across different modalities of communication. Cogn Behav Ther. 2016;45(6):473–8.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Ben-Zeev D, Young MA, Madsen JW. Retrospective recall of affect in clinically depressed individuals and controls. Cogn Emot. 2009;23(5):1021–40.
Article
Google Scholar
Thomas DL, Diener E. Memory accuracy in the recall of emotions. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1990;59(2):291.
Article
Google Scholar
Zhang W, O’Brien N, Forrest JI, Salters KA, Patterson TL, Montaner JS, et al. Validating a shortened depression scale (10 item CES-D) among HIV-positive people in British Columbia, Canada. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(7):e40793.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Radloff LS. The CES-D Scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas. 1977;1(3):385–401.
Article
Google Scholar
Tluczek A, Henriques JB, Brown RL. Support for the reliability and validity of a six-item state anxiety scale derived from the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. J Nurs Meas. 2009;17(1):19.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Alberts NM, Sharpe D, Kehler MD, Hadjistavropoulos HD. Health anxiety: comparison of the latent structure in medical and non-medical samples. J Anxiety Disord. 2011;25(4):612–4.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Neto F. Psychometric analysis of the short-form UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-6) in older adults. Eur J Ageing. 2014;11(4):313–9.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Kliem S, Mößle T, Rehbein F, Hellmann DF, Zenger M, Brähler E. A brief form of the Perceived Social Support Questionnaire (F-SozU) was developed, validated, and standardized. J Clin Epidemiol. 2015;68(5):551–62.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Cases in the U.S. [updated May 21, 2020May 22, 2020]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html.
Asmundson GJG, Taylor SE. How health anxiety influences responses to viral outbreaks like COVID-19: What all decision-makers, health authorities, and health care professionals need to know. J Anxiety Disord. 2020;71:102211.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
McMakin DL, Siegle GJ, Shirk SR. Positive affect stimulation and sustainment (PASS) module for depressed mood: a preliminary investigation of treatment-related effects. Cognit Ther Res. 2011;35(3):217–26.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Jose PE, Lim BT, Bryant FB. Does savoring increase happiness? A daily diary study. J Posit Psychol. 2012;7(3):176–87.
Article
Google Scholar
Hurley DB, Kwon P. Savoring helps most when you have little: Interaction between savoring the moment and uplifts on positive affect and satisfaction with life. J Happiness Stud. 2013;14:1261–71.
Article
Google Scholar
Bodie GD, Dutta MJ. Understanding health literacy for strategic health marketing: eHealth literacy, health disparities, and the digital divide. Health Mark Q. 2008;25(1–2):175–203.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Dutta-Bergman MJ. Health attitudes, health cognitions, and health behaviors among Internet health information seekers: population-based survey. J Med Internet Res. 2004;6(2):e15.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Curtin R, Presser S, Singer E. The effects of response rate changes on the index of consumer sentiment. Public Opin Q. 2000;64(4):413–28.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. Social media usage: 2005–2015 65% of adults now use social networking sites - a nearly tenfold jump in the past decade Oct. 8, 2015. Available from: https://www.secretintelligenceservice.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/PI_2015-10-08_Social-Networking-Usage-2005-2015_FINAL.pdf.
Lim K, Zabek MA. Women's Labor Force Exits during COVID-19: differences by motherhood, race, and ethnicity. 2021 working paper.
Palmer CL, Peterson RD. Toxic Mask-ulinity: the link between masculine toughness and affective reactions to mask wearing in the COVID-19 era. Polit Gend. 2020;16(4):1044–51.
Article
Google Scholar
UN Women. COVID-19 and ending violence against women and girls. EVAW COVID-19 briefs [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2020/04/issue-brief-covid-19-and-ending-violence-against-women-and-girls.
Cassino D, Besen-Cassino Y. Of Masks and men? Gender, sex, and protective measures during COVID-19. Polit Gend. 2020;16(4):1052–62.
Article
Google Scholar
Reny TT. Masculine norms and infectious disease: the case of covid-19. Polit Gender. 2020;16:1028–35.
Article
Google Scholar
Alkire S, Dirksen J, Nogales R, Oldiges C. Multidimensional poverty and COVID-19 risk factors: a rapid overview of interlinked deprivations across 5.7 billion people. Oxford: University of Oxford; 2020.
Google Scholar
Pilkington E. Black Americans dying of Covid-19 at three times the rate of white people: New figures from non-partisan APM Research Lab show staggering racial divide in coronavirus death rate across US May 20, 2020 [Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/20/black-americans-death-rate-covid-19-coronavirus.
Gorski PC. Fighting racism, battling burnout: causes of activist burnout in US racial justice activists. Ethn Racial Stud. 2019;42(5):667–87.
Article
Google Scholar
Gover AR, Harper SB, Langton L. Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: exploring the reproduction of inequality. Am J Crim Justice. 2020;4:647–67.
Article
Google Scholar
Murdock KK, Gorman S, Robbins M. Co-rumination via cellphone moderates the association of perceived interpersonal stress and psychosocial well-being in emerging adults. J Adolesc. 2015;38:27–37.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar