Table 4 The follow-up outcomes of cohort studies included in the systematic review
Study ID | Quality Assessment | SEC Variable | Measurement Method | Actual / Perceived | Anxiety (Time 2) Inventory Outcomes | Depression (Time 2) Inventory Outcomes | Note | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
#3451 | 8 | Education | Categorized as a) Primary; b) Secondary or higher | Actual | NA | NA | PHQ-9 | Lower education level was associated with higher depression (OR: 1.89, p < .001) | |
Concern about work changes | 1-item assessed using 10-point Likert scale (0 = No concern and 10 = Maximum concern) categorized into a) Mild (0–4); b) Moderate (5–7); and c) Maximum (8–10): "How much you worry about job changes during quarantine?" | Perceived | NA | Moderate and maximum concern were at higher risk for depression (OR: 1.28, p = .02; OR: 2.24, p < .001) | |||||
Running out of money | 1-item assessed using 4-point Likert scale (1 = Not concerned and 4 = Very much concerned), grouped into a) No (1 and 2); and b) Yes (3 and 4): "Running out of money to pay expenses, rent and taxes | Perceived | NA | Higher concerns about running out of money was at a significant risk for depression (OR: 1.43, p < .001) | |||||
Employment situation | Categorized as a) Employed; and b) Unemployed | Actual | NA | Unemployed people were at a significantly higher risk of depression (OR = 2.99, p < .001) | |||||
#195 | 11 | Race | Black versus Non-black | Actual | PHQ-4 | The odds of Black Americans reporting symptoms in a given month are about half that of non-Black Americans, and the differences are statistically significant in all months | PHQ-4 | The odds of Black Americans reporting symptoms in a given month are about half that of non-Black Americans, and the differences are statistically significant in all months | |
#150 | 11 | Financial stress | Financial stress section of UCLA Life Stress Interview | Unsure | NA | NA | BDI-II for mothers, CES-D for adolescents | Financial stress positively associated with depressive symptoms for youth exhibiting blunted reward processing (β = 0.54, p = .007), and negatively associated with depressive symptoms for youth exhibiting increased reward processing (β = -0.89, p < .001. No significant effect of financial stress on maternal depression | |
#3006 | 11 | Education | Categorised as a) High school; b) High school graduate; c) Vocational/tech school/some college; and d) Bachelor's degree or more | Actual | NA | NA | PHQ-9 | Having a high school qualification was associated with more depression than having a bachelor's degree (OR = 1.1, p = .024) | |
Household income | Categorised as a) < = 19,999; b) 20,000–44,999; c) 45,000–74,999; and d) > = 75,000 | Actual | NA | Having $19,999 or less in household income was associated with 7 times the odds of depression relative to incomes of $75,000 or more (p < .001) | |||||
Household savings | Categorised as a) < = 4,999; and b) > 5,000 | Actual | NA | Non-significant | |||||
#203 | 9 | Income | Categorized as a) Lower-income (annual household < $54,000); b) Middle income (> &54,000 and < $100,000); and c) Higher income (> $100,000) | Actual | GAD-7 | No statistically significant longitudinal changes in anxiety symptoms by income | NA | NA | |
#140 | 7 | Unemployment | Unclear | Actual | PHQ-4 | Unemployment remained as the strongest predictor of anxiety for 2020 cohort | PHQ-4 | Unemployment became the second strongest predictor of depression for 2020 cohort | |
Household income | Unclear | Actual | Household income remained as the second strongest predictor of anxiety for 2020 cohort | Household income became the strongest predictors of depression for 2020 cohort | |||||
#396 | 8 | Education | Categorized as a) Tertiary or above; b) Secondary; and c) Primary or below | Actual | GAD-7 | T2: Non-significant | PHQ-9 | T2: Lower education was associated with higher depression (aOR = 1.47, p = .045; aOR = 1.99, p = .023). | |
Employment | Categorized as a) Employed; b) Dependent; and c) Unemployed | Actual | T2: Unemployed was associated with higher anxiety (aOR = 2.15, p = .009) | T2: Unemployed was associated with higher depression (aOR = 1.97, p = .018) | |||||
Monthly household income | Categorized as a) $80,000 or above; b) $60,000-$79,999; c) $40,000-$59,999; d) $20,000-$39,999; and e) $19,999 or below | Actual | T2: Non-significant | T2: Non-significant | |||||
Income change | Categorized as a) Stable/Increase; and b) Decrease | Perceived | T2: Non-significant | T2: Non-significant | |||||
Savings | Categorized as a) $3,000,000 or above; b) $2,000,000-$2,999,999; c) $1,000,000-$1,999,999; d) $500,000-$999,999; e) $200,000-$499,999; f) Less than $200,000; and g) None | Actual | T2: No saving was associated with higher anxiety (aOR = 2.61, p = .028) | T2: No saving was associated with higher depression (aOR = 2.65, p = .022) | |||||
#243 | 8 | COVID-19 related economic stress | Categorized as a) No impact; b) Low impact; and (c) High impact | Perceived | GAD-7 | Non-significant | Non-significant | ||
#214 | 8 | Income loss | US: Yes / No Israel: 5-point Likert scale ((from no income loss to extreme income loss) | Actual | GAD-7 (US) PROMIS (Israel) | Income loss was associated with higher increase in anxiety for US (β = .26, p < .001). But non-significant for Israel | PHQ-2 (US) PROMIS (Israel) | Income loss was associated with higher increase in depression for US (β = .26, p < .001). But non-significant for Israel | |
Covid-19 Financial worries | Both US and Israel used 5-point Likert scale (from not at all to a great deal) | Perceived | NA | Higher financial worries were associated with higher increase in depression for US (β = .07, p = .035). But non-significant for Israel | |||||
Pre-COVID-19 income | US: Annual income in bracket Israel: 5-point Likert scale (1 = Considerably below average and 5 = Considerably above average) | Higher income was associated with lower anxiety for US (β = -.02, p < .001). But non-significant for Israel | Higher income was associated with lower depression for US (β = -.02, p < .001). But non-significant for Israel | ||||||
#130 | 11 | Pre-crisis socioeconomic status: Relative financial status | Categorized as a) Below average; b) Average; and c) Above average | Perceived | NA | NA | MDI | Participants' report of a below average relative financial status was a significant predictor of depression (B = 0.12, p < 0.05). However, participants' report of an above average relative financial status was also a significant predictor of depression (B = 0.10, p < 0.05) | |
Pre-crisis socioeconomic status: Difficulty paying usual bills | Categorized as a) Easy or very easy; b) Fairly easy; and c) Rather difficult or difficult | Perceived | NA | Non-significant | |||||
Pre-crisis socioeconomic status: highest level of education | Categorized as a) Compulsory schooling (ISCED 2; 9 years); b) Secondary school diploma (ISCED 34; 12–13 years); c) Apprenticeship (ISCED 35; 12–13 years); d) Bachelor's degree (ISCED 6; 15 years); and e) Master's degree (ISCED 7; 17 years) | Actual | NA | Secondary school was a significant predictor of higher depression (B = 0.18, p < 0.05). However, Master's degree was also a significant predictor of higher depression (B = 0.21, p < 0.05) | |||||
Changes in work situation due to COVID-19 | Categorized as a) No change; b) Job loss; c) Partial unemployment; and d) Losing money as self-employed | Actual | NA | Participants' report of self-employed & lost money was a significant predictor of depression (B = 0.36, p < 0.05). However, lost job and partial unemployment were not a significant predictor of depression | |||||
#101 | 9 | Job loss | Binary response (Yes/No) | Actual | GAD-7 | Non-significant | PHQ-9 | Non-significant | |
Income loss | Binary response (Yes/No) | Actual | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
Worries about losing job / employment | Binary response (Yes/No) | Perceived | Worries about losing job/employment showed associations with higher levels of anxiety | Worries about losing job/employment showed associations with higher levels of depression | |||||
Worries about finances | Binary response (Yes/No) | Perceived | Worries about finances showed associations with higher levels of anxiety | Worries about finances showed associations with higher levels of depression | |||||
#24 | 9 | Education | Categorized as a) No formal education; b) Fundamental education; c) Secondary education; d) University degree; and e) Master or above | Actual | GAD-7 | Non-significant | CES-D | There were significant associations between fundamental education and lower follow-up depression (β = -3.81, p < .05), secondary education and lower follow-up depression (β = -3.95, p < .01), university degree and lower follow-up depression (β = -3.91, p < .01), and university degree of master and above and lower follow-up depression (β = -3.58, p < .01) | |
Employment status | Categorized as a) Full-time employed; b) In retirement or early retirement; c) In vocational training/retraining/education; d) Looking after home or family; e) Other status; f) Parental leave; g) Part-time employed; h) Permanently sick or disabled; i) Self-employed or working for own family business; and j) Unemployed | Actual | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
Income | Categorized as a) 0–25000 Euros; b) 25,000–75000; c) 75,000–150000; d) > 150,000 Euros; and e) No answer | Actual | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
#380 | 11 | Employment status | Categorized as a) Working in Wave 1; b) Paid leave in Wave 1; c) Furloughed in Wave 1; d) Not employed in Wave 1; e) Paid leave in Wave 2; f) Furloughed in Wave 2; and g) Not employed in Wave 2 | Actual | NA | NA | PHQ-2, CESD-10 | Being employed during Wave 2 was associated with decreased depression (OR = -0.24, p < .05) | |
Tertiary Education | Binary response (Yes/No) | Actual | NA | Non-significant | |||||
#372 | 11 | Education | Years of education | Actual | PROMIS Anxiety | Non-significant | PHQ-8 | Non-significant | |
Employment status | Categorized as a) Part-time; and b) Full-time | Actual | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
Financial well-being | Measured using the CFPB Financial Well-Being Scale | Perceived | Lower financial well-being was associated with higher anxiety (aB = -0.24, p < .05) | Lower financial well-being was associated with higher depression (aB = -0.20, p < .05) | |||||
#354 | 11 | Economic adversity | Categorized as a) Faced with new health expenses; b) Experienced adversity but did not reduce food consumption; and c) Reduced food consumption as response to adversity | Actual | GAD-7 | People who experienced adversity but did not reduce food consumption had higher odds of anxiety (Ethiopia, OR = 2.36, p < .05; Peru, OR = 2.50, p < .05; Vietnam, OR = 1.62, p < .05). People who reduced food consumption as response to adversity had higher odds of anxiety (Ethiopia, OR = 7.19, p < .05; Peru, OR = 2.40, p < .05; Vietnam, OR = 1.67, p < .05) | PHQ-8 | People who experienced adversity but did not reduce food consumption had higher odds of depression (Ethiopia, OR = 3.81, p < .05; Peru, OR = 2.05, p < .05; Vietnam, OR = 1.70, p < .05). People who reduced food consumption as response to adversity had higher odds of depression (Ethiopia, OR = 10.89, p < .05; Peru, OR = 2.53, p < .05; Vietnam, OR = 1.91, p < .05) | |
Employment status | Categorized as a) Did not work before pandemic but working now; b) Worked before pandemic and still working; and c) Worked before pandemic but no longer working | Actual | People who worked before pandemic but no longer working had higher odds of anxiety (Ethiopia, OR = 2.29, p < .05; India, OR = 2.50, p < .05) | People who worked before pandemic but no longer working had higher odds of depression (Ethiopia, OR = 1.68, p < .05; Vietnam, OR = 1.51, p < .05) | |||||
#334 | 11 | Annual household income | Categorized as a) < $79,999; and b) $80,000 or more | Actual | STAI-SF | Non-significant | CESD-10 | Non-significant | |
COVID-19 impact on income or employment | Binary response (Yes/No) | Perceived | Impact of COVID-19 on income or employment had a 1.42 mean increase in anxiety score (p < .001) | Impact of COVID-19 on income or employment had a 3.00 mean increase in depression score (p < .001) | |||||
#446 | 8 | Education Personal income Family income Householder Unemployment experience | Categorized as a) Jr high school; b) High school; c) Associate degree or Diploma; d) Bachelor; and e) Master or Doctorate Categorized as a) Low; b) Middle; and c) High Categorized as a) Low; b) Middle; and c) High Binary response (Yes/No) Unclear | Actual Perceived Perceived Actual Actual | NA | NA NA NA NA NA | CES-D | Non-significant Non-significant Non-significant Non-significant Unemployment was a factor associated with increasing depression (p = 0.003) | |
#1415 | 11 | Education | Categorized as a) Less than high school; b) Some high school, no diploma; c) High school graduate or equivalent; d) Some college, no degree; e) Associate degree; f) Bachelor’s degree; g) Master’s degree; h) Professional school degree; and i) Doctorate degree | Actual | NA | NA | PHQ-8 | Individuals with higher education reported a larger increase in depressive symptoms (total effect = .032) | |
Income (household) | Total combined income of all family members 15 years or older who lived in the household over the past year on a 17-point scale (1 = less than $5000 and 17 = $200,000 or above) | Actual | NA | Non-significant | |||||
#1278 | 11 | Financial concerns | 11-point Likert scale (0–10) with higher values intended to reflect higher frequency or intensity to the question: “How concerned are you about your financial situation as a result of the pandemic?” | Perceived | GAD-7 | Non-significant | PHQ-9 | Non-significant | |
#1140 | 11 | Job loss | Binary response (Yes/No) | Actual | GAD-7 | Non-significant | CESD-SF | Non-significant | |
Education loss | Binary response (Yes/No) | Actual | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
Not employed/ in education (pre-pandemic) | Binary response (Yes/No) | Actual | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
Low SES family | Binary response (Yes/No) – defined as ≤ 1 SD on SES scale aggregating annual gross income, parental education level, and parental occupation prestige from ages 15 -17 years | Actual | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
#933 | 8 | Education | Unclear | Actual | GAD-7 | Lower educational background was associated with greater anxiety in ALSPAC-parents and ALSPAC-young cohorts, but not in the Generation Scotland cohort | SMFQ | Lower education background was associated with greater depression in ALSPAC parents and Generation Scotland cohorts, but not in the ALSPAC-young cohort | |
Income | Unclear | Actual | Higher income before the pandemic was associated with lower anxiety in ALSPAC-young and Generation Scotland cohort, but not in the ALSPAC-parent cohort | Higher income before the pandemic was associated with lower depression in ALSPAC-parents and Generation Scotland cohorts, but not in the ALSPAC-young cohort | |||||
Recent financial problems | Unclear | Unclear | NA | NA | |||||
#883 | 11 | Income loss | Categorized as a) No income loss; b) Greater than 0% but less than 50% monthly income loss; and c) Greater than or equal to 50% monthly income loss | Actual | GAD-7 | Non-significant | PHQ-9 | Those reporting ≥ 50% income loss showed a significant increase in depression scores | |
#2773 | 11 | Education | Binary variable (Yes / No) indicating whether or not at least some secondary education was received | Actual | NA | NA | PHQ-8 | Non-significant | |
Employment status | Binary indicator (Yes / No) of whether the respondent was engaged in activity resulting in monetary, food or other forms of compensation | Actual | NA | PHQ-8 | Non-significant | ||||
Monthly income | Binary variable (Yes / No) indicating whether or not at least 100,000 Ush is earned per month | Actual | NA | PHQ-8 | Non-significant | ||||
Food security | 5 items adapted from the Food Insecurity Experience Scale | Perceived | NA | PHQ-8 | High food insecurity was associated with elevated depressive symptoms (aOR = 4.56, p = < .05) | ||||
#7203 | 11 | Income | Categorized as (in £) a) < 15,000; b) 15,000 to < 30,000; c) 30,000 to 45,000; and d) ≥ 45,000 | Actual | K6 | Those with an annual income of < £15,000 were more likely to develop psychological distress at T2 compared to those with an annual income of ≥ £45,000 (OR = 2.09) | K6 | Those with an annual income of < £15,000 were more likely to develop psychological distress at T2 compared to those with an annual income of ≥ £45,000 (OR = 2.09) | |
#6670 | 11 | Perceived financial risk due to Covid-19 | A single-item that asked participants to report the percent chance they will run out of money because of the coronavirus in the next three months | Perceived | PHQ-4 | Perceived financial risks (i.e., running out of money) increased and explained 14–15% of the initial rise in psychological distress between 10–18 March and 1–14 April (β = 0.038) | PHQ-4 | Perceived financial risks (i.e., running out of money) increased and explained 14–15% of the initial rise in distress between 10–18 March and 1–14 April (β = 0.038) | |
#3282 | 11 | Economic impact payments | Binary response (Yes/No) | Actual | GAD-2 | Non-significant | PHQ-2 | EIP recipients were significantly associated with increased depression (marginal effect = 0.26) | |
#3242 | 8 | Socioeconomic position (SEP) | Categorized into a) Low; b) Medium; and c) High based on a number of measures (e.g., parents' education, number of books at home, number of cars etc.) | Perceived | NA | NA | HSCL (6-items) | No significant changes in SEP inequalities in either boys or girls between T1 and T2. In actual fact, the differences in the share of medium and high SEP girls reporting high depressive symptoms narrowed between T1 and T2, as high SEP girls reported more problems | |
#78 | 7 | Education | Highest years of education in the household | Actual | SC-90-R | An extra year of education reduced the toll on anxiety by 0.5 percentage points | SC-90-R | An extra year of education reduced the toll on depression by 0·6 percentage points | |
Income (per capita) | Monthly household income per capita (2017 USD) | Actual | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
Asset index | Unclear | Unclear | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
Beneficiary of conditional cash transfer | Unclear | Unclear | Non-significant | Non-significant | |||||
Job or Income loss | Unclear | Unclear | Anxiety increased by 6 percentage points for those who reported job or income loss | Non-significant | |||||
#89 | 11 | Income (annual pre-Covid) | Categorized as a) < 10 k;b) 10-20 k; c) 20-30 k; d) 30-40 k; e) 40-50 k; f) 50-60 k; g) 60-70 k; h) 70-80 k; i) 80-90 k; j) 90-100 k; k) 100-150 k; and l) > 150 k | Actual | SAI | Subjects with lower income were significantly related to having higher anxiety (β = -.32, p < 0.001) | SDS | Subjects with lower income were significantly related to higher depression (β = -.37, p < 0.001) | |
#56 | 11 | Employment Status | Categorized as a) Employed; b) Out of work; c) Homemaker; d) Student; and e) Retired | Actual | GAD-7 | Non-significant | NA | NA | |
Non-significant | NA | ||||||||
Income | Categorized as a) < $50,000; b) $50,000 to $ 90,000; and c) > = $100,000 | Actual | |||||||
Income loss | Unclear | Unclear | Having lost income due to COVID-19 was positively associated with moderate or severe anxiety symptoms (aPR = 1.27) | NA | |||||
#5 | 8 | Education | Categorized as a) High school/GED or lower; b) Some college; and c) Bachelor or higher" | Actual | GAD-2 | Non-significant | PHQ-2 | Non-significant | |
Income (household) | Categorized as a) Less than $49,000; b) $50,000-$99,000; c) $100,000-$149,000; d) $150,000 or higher; and e) Unknown" | Actual | Compared to people with less than $49,000 household income, $50,000 to $99,000 household income have lower risk for psychological distress (aPR = 0.86, p < .05); $100,000 to $149,000 household income have lower risk for psychological distress (aPR = 0.80, p < .01); and $150,000 and above household income have lower risk for psychological distress (aPR = 0.70, p < .001) | Compared to people with less than $49,000 household income, $50,000 to $99,000 household income have lower risk for psychological distress (aPR = 0.86, p < .05); $100,000 to $149,000 household income have lower risk for psychological distress (aPR = 0.80, p < .01); $150,000 and above household income have lower risk for psychological distress (aPR = 0.70, p < .001)." | |||||
#2874 | 8 | Annual household income | Categorized as a) > 200 thousand Yuan; b) 30–100 thousand Yuan; and c) 100–200 thousand Yuan | Actual | NA | NA | PHQ-9 | Compared to annual household income of more than 200 thousand Yuan, annual household income of 30 to 100 thousand Yuan (OR = 1.49, p < .05) and 100 to 200 thousand Yuan (OR = 1.21, p < .05) have higher risk for depression | |
Education | Categorized as a) Bachelor degree or below level; and b) Master degree or higher level | Actual | NA | Non-significant | |||||