Table 2 Sample characteristics of the included studies’ participants

Beal et al. (2013)

M = 31.23, SD = 9.63

66%

Midwest USA, Canada

Restaurant servers from seven different restaurants

2.46

$50

Bono et al. (2007)

M = 41, SD = 10

94%

Caucasian (86%), African American (9%), Asian (5%)

Health care workers from family practice clinics (nurse, medical assistant, and lab technician, n = 14), administrative offices (patient services support, case analyst, and account follow-up specialist, n = 10), and a billing office (accountant, case manager, and human resource specialist, n = 33)

5.24

$25

Chang et al. (2021)

30.2% 31–40, 53.7% over 41 (pre-survey)

79%¹ (pre-survey) & 80%¹ (final EMA)

Southeast USA

Teachers from a Title-I middle school

M = 13, SD = 7.17 (pre-survey) & M = 14.41¹, SD = 5.53¹ (final EMA)

Huang et al. (2015)

M = 23

73%

Midwest China

Employees working in the call center of a telecommunication company

1.8

Max. $30

Hupperts et al. (2020)

M = 31, SD = 10.2

52%

Employees from customer-facing jobs working with customers, defined as persons that buy a good or a service (51%) or as persons that receive help or advice from a professional person (23%), employees in hospitality working with guests (n = 5), with students (10%), patients (3%), children (3%), or none of the groups indicated above (4%); participants’ job titles indicated that most of them were working in sales (29%), IT (13%) and hospitality and related fields (10%)

M = 5.4, SD = 6.8

£0.35 for completion of a midday survey, £0.25 for an end-of-work survey, and £0.25 for a bedtime survey; bonus payment for completion of all three daily surveys (10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% for 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 complete days, resp.); additional bonus payment of £1.00 for completing all daily surveys for five days

Judge et al. (2009)

M = 30.2, SD = 9.5

56%

25 different states of the USA

Caucasian (63.0%), Asian (22.8%), Hispanic (7.9%), African American (4.7%), other (1.6%)

Customer service workers

3.7

$50

Keller et al. (2014)

M = 44.14, SD = 11.33

56%

Germany

Secondary teachers

16.16

Sayre et al. (2019, Study 1)

M = 35.68, SD = 10.5

63%

USA

White (83.7%), Hispanic (10.5%), Asian (2.3%), Black (4.7%), Native American (1.2%)

Employees with daily contact with individuals outside their organization (e.g., customers, patients, students, clients): professional roles (31.4%; financial services, managers, lawyers), caring work (18.6%; health care), other service roles (15.1%, beauty/salon, housekeeping), education (14.0%), sales (12.8%), food service (5.8%), hotel/hospitality (2.3%)

6.15

Sayre et al. (2019, Study 2)

M = 31.63, SD = 8.89

73%

Taiwan

Nonstudents with traditional business hours (9:00-17:00) in jobs that involved daily contact with individuals outside their organization (e.g., customers, patients, students, clients); in food service (29.1%), professional services (21.5%, financial services, managerial, legal), sales (11.5%), health care (14.3%), education (6.3%), hotel and hospitality (4.7%), other services (12.6%, e.g., hair/beauty, housekeeping, etc.)

3.75

Scott et al. (2011)

M = 48.4, SD = 8.6

37%

Northwest USA

African American (n = 16), Asian/ Pacific Islander (n = 2), Hispanic/ Latino (n = 1), white/Caucasian (n = 44); “other” category (n = 3), ethnicity not reported (n = 2)

Bus drivers working for the same transportation company

Random drawing for five $100 prizes

Totterdell et al. (2003)

M = 34.28, range 22–54

72%

Customer service employees from seven teams in one section of a call center of a major financial bank

Wagner et al. (2014)

M = 52

15%

Northwest USA

Caucasian (61.5%), African American (23.1%), Hispanic/Latino (3.9%), Asian/ Pacific Islander (2.6%), American Indian or Alaskan Native (2.6%), “other” or not reporting ethnicity (6.8%)

Bus drivers of a transit company

Compensated for participation via random drawing of monetary awards

Xiao et al. (2019)

under 19 (11%), 20–29 (23%), 30–39 (34%), 40–49 (18%), over 50 (14%)

51%

China

Frontline employees (service providers) of 71 companies in the hospitality and catering industry; luxury hotel chains and restaurants in metropolitan areas; working in hotel reception and VIP housekeeping; administration, customer service, maintenance and food service