Table 1 Characteristics of the assessment methods and observations of the included studies
Design | n Participants | Duration | Observations | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study | Sampling design | EMA device | Invited | Included in analysis | Drop-out rate | Possible time period (p.p.) | Possible observations (total) | Observations included in analysis (total) | Response rate (total) | Possible observations (p.p.) | Average of observations (p.p.) | Possible observations per day (p.p.) |
Beal et al. (2013) | At the beginning of the shift, before the rush, after the rush and at the end of the shift (i.e., event-based) | PDA | 84 | 63 | 25%a | 15 workdays | 3780a | 2051 | 54%a | 60a | 4 | |
Bono et al. (2007) | Within the shift (i.e., event-based) during each 2-h segment of the 8-h workday (i.e., random-based) including a 10-min response window | PDA | 73 | 54 | 26%a | 10 workdays | 2266 | 889 | 39% | 40a | 15 | 4 |
Chang et al. (2021) | Three daily alerts at beginning of the day, mid-day planning period or lunch time, and end of the day (i.e., event-based). Optional additional assessment during the day following student misbehavior (i.e., event-based) | PDA (iPad Mini) | 68 | 42 (pre-survey) & 15 (final EMA) | 38% (pre-survey) & 78%a (final EMA) | Two weeks | 450a & 600a (without and with optional daily assessment, resp.) | 70 | 16%a & 12%a (without and with optional daily assessment, resp.) | 30a & 40a (without and with optional daily assessment, resp.) | 3 & 4 (without and with optional daily assessment, resp.) | |
Huang et al. (2015) | In the middle and at the end of the workday (i.e., event-based) | PPQ | 100 | 84 | 16%a | 15 workdays | 2520a | 1054 | 42%a | 30 | 25 | 2 |
Huppertz et al. (2020) | 3 daily surveys sent out at 13:00, 16:00, and 19:00 with instructions to complete the survey during work, shortly after work, or in the evening, resp. (i.e., event-based) | Online survey | 150 | 144 & 146 (depending on analysis) | 4%a & 3%a (depending on analysis) | 7 days | 3024a & 3066a (depending on analysis) | 699 | 23%a | 21a | 3 | |
Judge et al. (2009) | At the end of the workday (i.e., event-based) | Online survey | 230 | 127 | 45% | 7 days, weekends included | 635 | 398 | 63% | 7 | 4.5 | 1 |
Keller et al. (2014) | At the beginning of each regular teaching lesson including a 5-min response window (i.e., event-based) and once within that lesson including a 5-min response window (i.e., random-based) | PDA (Palm Pilot Z22) | 39 | 10 workdays | 882a | 794 | 90% | 40 | ||||
Sayre et al. (2019, Study 1) | Participants were e-mailed a link twice a day for 14 days between 13:00 and 17:00 & between 17:00 and 21:00 (i.e., event- and random- based) | Online survey | 219 | 86 | 61%a | 14 days, weekends included | 2408a | 390 | 16%a | 28a | 2 | |
Sayre et al. (2019, Study 2) | A survey link was sent electronically twice a day for 10 workdays at 9:00 & 17:00 (event-based) | Online survey | 95 | 90 | 5%a | 10 workdays | 1800a | 700 | 39% | 20a | 2 | |
Scott et al. (2011) | Right before beginning the shift and before leaving work (i.e., event-based) | Online survey | 68 | 58 | 15%a | 10 workdays | 580 | 405 | 73% | 20a | 14 | 2 |
Totterdell et al. (2003) | At 11:00, 13:00, 15:00, and 17:00 including a 30-min response window (i.e., event-based) with a 30-min response window | PDA | 90 | 18 | 80%a | 10 workdays | 720a | 537 | 85% | 40a | 29.83 | 4 |
Wagner et al. (2014) | Prior to beginning their shifts and following their shift, participants used a computer terminal to fill out two surveys, and each evening they completed a paper-based survey just prior to retiring to bed (i.e., event-based) | Online at a compu-ter termi-nal & PPQ | 100 | 78 | 22%a | 14 workdays | 3276a | 42a | 3 | |||
Xiao et al. (2019) | PPQ | 1000 | 572 | 43%a | 10 workdays | |||||||