Fig. 1

Task Schematic. Task structure for a single session is depicted here. In this run, creatures are the first category to appear, followed by the plants, and then the seashells. Creatures are associated with the retrieval condition, plants with the reproduction condition, and shells with the restudy condition. The arrows illustrate how participants cycle through the exposure and training phase for each condition (Recall, Reproduce, and Restudy). Within each block, the order of trials is randomly determined. Some blocks are followed by a filler task, which involves finding pairs of matching pictures (as illustrated in the top right corner). At the end of the training phase, the participants’ cued recall and recognition for all 27 novel word-picture associations are tested. A week later, participants only complete the cued recall and recognition task; they are not exposed to the training phase