Associations between motivational factors and burnout syndrome among elite skiers

Abstract

The present research investigated the association between a series of motivational factors and burnout syndrome among elite skiers at the contextual level within the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation (HMIEM). There are 352 subjects (258 males, 94 females, aged 18 to 25 years) across five skiing events from three sport universities in this study. Four psychological scales related to motivational factors and burnout syndrome were completed by subjects. Overall, the result showed that a task-involving climate had a positive relationship with basic psychological needs, eliciting a positive pathway to autonomous motivation, and thus negatively affecting burnout syndromes. On the other hand, an ego-involving climate had a negative relationship with basic psychological needs, eliciting a negative pathway to amotivation, and then positively affecting burnout syndromes. The results underscore the intricate associations between a variety of motivational factors and athletes’ burnout syndrome, supporting the need to incorporate burnout syndrome elements into the outcomes of HMIEM sequence.

Introduction

While participation in sports brings various personal benefits, for some elite athletes, the extreme demands of competitive sports can lead to mental and physical health problems [1, 2]. Psychological exhaustion is comparatively less visible and presents a more significant challenge in terms of diagnosis when compared to physical issues [3]. Notably, burnout syndrome is classified as a mental issue that appears to be increasingly widespread among elite athletes, and may also raise the possibility of other negative health effects [4].

In winter months, the prolonged grey, short days, and constant darkness may negatively impact athletes’ mental health, however, there are very few studies on mental issues in winter sports. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is described as a recurring depression based on seasonal patterns [5]. As sunlight decreases during the short dark days of winter, many individuals suffer from SAD. Symptoms of winter seasonal pattern disorder focus on low energy and low mood, while people with SAD feel tired and lethargic [6], which are similar to typical symptoms of burnout [7]. Moreover, a previous study showed that during the winter months, serotonin levels associated with well-being decreased, while chemicals related to mental health crises increased [8]. Therefore, the unique characteristics of skiing, such as high-risk maneuvers and extreme weather conditions, underline the need for research on burnout among elite skiers, particularly given the upcoming 2025 Asian Winter Games that will be held in China.

The evidence suggests that motivation plays a crucial role in the performance and well-being of athletes, and it is intricately linked to burnout [9,10,11]. However, there is limited research available that has linked burnout syndrome to motivation in skiers. Consequently, the primary objective of the present research was to examine skiers’ burnout syndrome within the HMIEM at the contextual level [12]. It is hoped that the results of the study will highlight the significance of motivational factors for burnout syndrome and provide practical applications for future burnout prevention and intervention strategies in sports.

Athlete burnout

Burnout is related to several negative outcomes in athletes, including poor performance, withdrawal from sports, and decreased motivation [13]. As a result, athletes’ burnout is of increasing interest to researchers, sports managers, and coaches. There are three relevant theoretical models in sports psychology research that can explain the phenomenon of athlete burnout, including the Coakley’s model of unidimensional identity development and external control, the integrated model by Gustafsson et al., and the Silva’s model of the negative-training stress response. Coakley emphasizes social factors in his model. He argues that the main cause of burnout is related to the social organizations that manage sport and that their inappropriate behavior affects athletes’ control and identity, especially since competitive sport leaves athletes without enough time to spend with their competitive sports friends, resulting in a frequent lack of self-identity. As a result, young athletes must focus on success and improving their self-identity or it will lead to burnout. At the same time, parental and coaching control over athletes leaves athletes without decision-making power most of the time, which again leads to stress and burnout [14]. Similarly, the integrated model of athlete burnout proposed by Gustafsson et al. (2011) also focuses on social factors, it suggests negative social interactions may compound the risk of burnout. The integrated model incorporates aspects of the social environment into the hypothesized antecedents of burnout (e.g., stressful social relations/ excessive training/ work demands), influencing factors of the burnout process (e.g., environmental factors/ personality/coping), and maladaptive consequences (e.g., withdraw/ long term performance impairment/ impaired immune functions) [15]. While the Silva’s model mostly emphasizes stress. Silva’s negative training stress response model focuses on athletes’ reactions to physical training and determines whether or not they are exhausted. He argued that physical training stresses athletes physically and mentally, but has both negative and positive effects and that the appropriate use of physical training can achieve positive results [16]. In addition, it has also been argued that the fewer athletes know about their own feelings, the less they perceive the emotions of others and the more prone they are to suffer from mental burnout [17].

In the cases of the elite males from team sports (football, handball, cricket, rugby, and ice hockey), 5% of athletes showed burnout symptoms and adverse alcohol use [18]. Another piece of statistical evidence states that generally between 1 and 5% of athletes experience symptoms of burnout [15]. For some elite athletes, these findings are not conclusive in terms of percentages, and these indicators fluctuate depending on the characteristics of each study [19]. While most researchers claim that a large number of elite athletes in professional sports are suffering from burnout, some research has been conducted seems to confirm the validity of this claim. Based on a preliminary analysis of a limited number of studies, between 1 and 7% of elite athletes at this level experience high levels of burnout, while more than 15% experience moderate symptoms of burnout [20]. Another study of elite Spanish weightlifting, taekwondo, basketball, and handball athletes found that almost 10% of elite athletes experienced burnout [21]. Although the incidence of burnout syndrome is relatively low at the professional level, it has attracted attention due to its devastating physical and psychological effects. Besides, one of the earliest studies on elite athletes and burnout which aim was to identify and psychologically describe tennis player burnout showed that elite tennis players with burnout had less external motivation compared to tennis players without burnout [22].

Historically, the exploration of athletes’ burnout has been constrained by a dearth of validated domain-specific assessments. Therefore, a significant contribution to burnout research was the development of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ), one of the earliest validated sport-specific measures of athlete burnout, including sport devaluation, exhaustion, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment [23]. The ABQ was derived from the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) through adaptation. It has demonstrated good validity and reliability in a range of athlete populations. There are no established clinical cut-offs for athlete burnout, similar to general burnout [24].

Theoretical integration of SDT and HMIEM

Since burnout is a common phenomenon in the sporting context, understanding the underlying motivational mechanisms becomes paramount in addressing and mitigating burnout risks. The SDT and HMIEM offer frameworks to delve into the intricacies of motivation, shedding light on the interplay between internal drives, external influences, and psychological well-being. By examining these motivational theories alongside athlete burnout research, we gain deeper insights into the factors shaping athletes' experiences, behaviors, and ultimately, their performance outcomes.

The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a comprehensive framework developed to explore human motivation and personality [25]. It centers around an individual’s capacity to make decisions and regulate behavior, which is crucial for maintaining good mental health. SDT identifies two primary types of motivation which significantly affect human behavior. Firstly, intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors and is exemplified by individuals who continue an activity because it brings them joy and satisfaction (e.g., a skier works hard in training because he/she enjoys skiing). Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, stems from external factors and is demonstrated by individuals who persist with an activity to achieve external rewards (e.g., a biathlon player training for college scholarships). These two types of motivation may have different impacts on individuals’ behavior [26], with intrinsic motivation being the most self-determined due to its association with enjoyment and satisfaction.

Furthermore, autonomous motivation within the SDT includes intrinsic regulation, integrated regulation, and identified regulation, which originate from both external and internal sources. When people are more autonomous, their motivations mainly come from their value to the behavior, that is, their interest and pleasure in the behavior. At this time, they tend to persist in their behavior, feel more satisfied, and have a higher sense of overall well-being. While controlled motivation involves external and introjected regulations, primarily stemming from external influences. Amotivation is characterized by the absence of an intention to engage in an activity and a failure to recognize its value or perceive one’s ability to participate. According to SDT, autonomous motivation is expected to yield positive outcomes such as healthier behavior, sustained commitment, and enhanced performance [27].

The HMIEM expands upon SDT and advocates for a comprehensive examination of motivational outcomes, including affect, cognition, and behavior, to fully understand the motivational process. It addresses the determinants and outcomes of a set of motivational stages at global, contextual, and situational levels [12]. This model presents a compelling rationale supporting a four-stage motivational process: Social Factors → Basic Psychological Needs → Motivation → Consequences. Over the past few decades, the HMIEM has been extensively studied in various fields [28]. It is conceptually defined as a schematic representation of motivation dynamics, focusing on the relationship between theoretical constructs, and is primarily utilized in quantitative research [29,30,31]. As individual motivational behavior is profoundly influenced by contextual factors, especially in specific domains like sports/exercise, the present study primarily concentrates at the contextual level on the above-mentioned motivational sequence (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

Motivational processes in contextual level of the HMIEM

Motivational factors and burnout

In the realm of competitive sports, athletes are driven by a relentless pursuit of excellence, pushing their physical and mental limits to achieve peak performance. This passion is underpinned by a complex interplay of motivational factors that significantly impact individuals’ experiences and outcomes in their sports [32]. Over the years, researchers and sports psychologists have delved into the complex relationship between motivational factors, and how they are intricately linked to the phenomenon of burnout in sports.

The framework of the motivational climate originates from the Achievement Goal Theory [33]. Motivational climate in sports pertains to the prevailing social factors, and plays a pivotal role in shaping athletes’ perceptions, behaviors, and performance. Coaches, teammates, and organizational structures can influence whether the climate is task or ego oriented. Notably, coaching behavior is considered a highly significant element in the perceptions of motivational climate [34]. The task-involving climate increases athletes’ level of interest, satisfaction, and enjoyment, while the ego-involving climate tends to enhance performance anxiety, pressure, and tension [35]. A recent study showed that an ego-involving climate was predictive of sport devaluation and exhaustion, whereas a task-involving climate negatively indicated a reduced sense of accomplishment [36]. A survey of high school athletes showed higher engagement and lower levels of burnout when they felt that their coaches and peers created a task-involving climate [37].

Within the construct of HMIEM, basic psychological needs play a vital role in human motivation, as the motivational climate has an impact on motivation through these needs [12]. The fulfillment of basic psychological needs is a fundamental aspect of an athlete’s overall well-being and motivation [38]. Athletes who experience a sense of autonomy, where they feel in control of their training and competition decisions, are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, setting the stage for long-term engagement and satisfaction in their athletic pursuits. Similarly, feelings of competence, derived from witnessing improvement and skill mastery, contribute to an athlete’s self-belief and resilience in the face of challenges. Finally, the fulfillment of relatedness needs, which involves positive social interactions and a sense of connection within the sports community, helps foster a sense of belonging in athletes [27]. Notably, a systematic review and meta-analysis has shown that three basic psychological needs are significant predictors of global burnout in athletes [39]. Another study showed that satisfaction of basic psychological needs has a direct negative effect on burnout [40].

Moreover, individual motivation, encompassing extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and amotivation, plays a crucial role in shaping athletes’ responses to the demands of their sports involvement. In the field of sports, personal motivation is associated with various outcomes, such as engagement [40], effort [41], dropout [42], enjoyment [43], persistence [44], perceived performance [45], psychological distress [29], and burnout [9]. Research related to burnout showed that athletes who are intrinsically motivated derive genuine pleasure and satisfaction from their athletic endeavors, making them less susceptible to burnout [46]. By contrast, an earlier 12-week study showed that amotivation was strongly linked to key characteristics of burnout, showing a notable positive association. Conversely, self-determined forms of motivation displayed significant negative associations with burnout [47]. This evidence showed that unmotivated athletes, lacking clear goals or a sense of purpose, may struggle with disengagement and apathy, paving the way for burnout to take root.

In general, the HMIEM is a potentially valuable model for understanding burnout syndrome in athletes, as these motivational factors within the HMIEM are associated with burnout. The focus of this research is to extend existing theoretical models through the study of skiers and offer practical recommendations to sports managers, coaches, and athletes on how to prevent burnout syndrome through effective motivational strategies.

The present study

Based on the above theoretical and empirical evidence, the quantitative research approach with a cross-sectional survey design was appropriate for the current research because it involved the use of a research instrument based on an ordinal scale to collect data to identify motivational factors and burnout syndrome. The objective of this study was to examine the four stages of motivational sequences using the HMIEM framework in sport context. Specifically, the present study aimed to utilize structural equation modeling (SEM) to integrate burnout syndrome within the HMIEM: motivational climate → basic psychological needs → motivation → burnout syndrome. The following are the hypotheses of this study:

• Hypothesis 1: Ego-involving climate would be negatively associated with basic psychological needs, while task-involving climate would be positively associated with basic psychological needs.

• Hypothesis 2: Basic psychological needs would be negatively associated with amotivation, while basic psychological needs would be positively associated with autonomous motivation.

• Hypothesis 3：Autonomous motivation would be negatively associated with burnout syndrome, while amotivation would be positively associated with burnout syndrome.

Method

Participants

A total of 352 elite college skiers (73.3% male, 26.7% female) were recruited in the survey study through convenience sampling. Table 1 displayed the demographic information of participants. Participants of the five skiing events came from three sport universities in northeast China, including cross-country skiing (N = 23, 6.5%), biathlon (N = 42, 12.0%), freestyle skiing (N = 55, 15.6%), snowboarding (N = 62, 17.6%), and alpine skiing (N = 170, 48.3%). 91.5% of participants had over five years of training experience, aged 18 to 25 (M = 20.3, SD = 1.6). Among the skiers, 2.8% achieved the highest competitive level (international master-level), 9.1% reached the second competitive level (national master-level), 39.2% attained the third competitive level (national first-level), and 48.9% reached the fourth competitive level (national second-level). 34.1% of them trained for 4–5 sessions per week, and 35.5% trained for 2–3 sessions per week, with each session lasting an average of 120 min for all participants.

Table 1 Demographic data of the participants

Measures

An 86-item survey comprised of four sets of instruments was developed specifically for this research, including the measurement of several variables of motivational factors and burnout syndrome. This multifaceted survey aimed to capture a broad spectrum of information, providing a detailed understanding of the participants’ experiences and perceptions during sports participation. A brief description of each inventory follows:

Sport motivation scale-II

Athletes were asked to complete the Sport Motivation Scale-II (SMS-II) [48] with 18 items to assess their motivation. It provides athletes with questions to respond to concerning why they participate in their respective sports (e.g., Because I have chosen this sport as a way to develop myself). A seven-point Likert scale was used to assess the level of athlete’s motivation, ranging from 1 (Not at all true) to 7 (Very true) for each response. The SMS-II subscales were considered a valid tool for sports motivation, as Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the six subscales ranged from .73 and .86 and were considered reliable [48].

Perceived motivational climate in sport questionnaire-II

The Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-II (PMCSQ-II) [49] was used by athletes to fill out a questionnaire with 33 items specifically designed to evaluate their perceptions of the team. It assesses individuals’ perceptions of task-involving and ego-involving climates (e.g., On this team, the coach believes that all of us are crucial to the success of the team; On this team, the coach yells at players for messing up). A five-point Likert scale was used to assess this subscale ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for ego and task climates were 0.87 and 0.88 respectively [49], and it is the most commonly used tool for measuring the level of motivational climate [50].

Basic need satisfaction in sport scale

The Basic Need Satisfaction in Sport Scale (BNSSS) [51] was utilized in this study, which consists of 20 items assessing athletes’ feelings during sports participation, to evaluate athletes’ perceptions of relatedness, autonomy, and competence (e.g., in my sport, I get opportunities to make choices). A seven-point Likert scale was used to assess the level of athlete’s basic need satisfaction, ranging from 1 (Not at all true) to 7 (Very true). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the five subscales ranged from .61 and .82 and were considered reliable [51].

Athlete burnout questionnaire

The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) [23] with 15 items presents three dimensions: emotional and physical exhaustion, sport devaluation, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment. These subscales provide athletes with questions to answer concerning how they feel in sports (e.g., I am not performing up to my ability in the sport). A five-point Likert scale was used to measure the level of athletes’ burnout, ranging from 1 (Almost never) to 5 (Almost always). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for all three subscales were > .85 [23].

Translation procedures

The survey measures used in this study were originally developed in English. Therefore, prior to data collection, the questionnaires underwent a translation and validation process in Chinese. Although the SMS-II [52], ABQ [53], BNSSS [54], and PMCSQ-II [55] had previously been translated and validated for Chinese-speaking samples, these questionnaires were incorporated into the translation process for this study. To ensure accuracy and linguistic equivalence, two academic language experts proficient in both Chinese and English were engaged to translate and back-translate the four questionnaires. The questionnaire translated into Chinese was then sent to three experts in the field of sports psychology for review. Based on their feedback, three items in BNSSS were made minor adjustments during the translation process to align them more closely with the language and cultural context of our target population to enhance the validity of the scales, while the other three questionnaires used the already published Chinese questionnaires.

Data collection

After being granted approval from the research ethics committee (REC) and acquiring the necessary permissions from three universities in northeast China, the phase of data collection commenced. Before distributing the survey questionnaires to the subjects, the researchers approached team coaches and institutional leaders for their cooperation. Participants completed the paper-and-pencil survey with the assistance of a research assistant when coaches were not at their sports clubs. To ensure clarity and consistency, participants were provided with standardized written and verbal instructions prior to receiving and filling out the questionnaires. These instructions aimed to enhance their understanding of the questions and help them manage their time effectively while responding. They took about 30 min to complete the entire set of questionnaires, which consisted of 86 questions.

Data analysis

Three steps of data analysis were performed in this study. (a) Step one was carried out using SPSS Statistics 26.0, including screening missing values and range values, and checking normality and reliability. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to assess internal consistency, and a cut-off score of 0.70 was determined to be acceptable [56]. (b) In step two, descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize the subjects’ scores from measurement scales, while Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to assess the interrelationships among variables: .10 is small, .30 is moderate, and .50 is large [57]. (c) In the last step, a conceptual model was evaluated and specified using structural equation modeling describing the relationship between burnout syndrome and a series of motivational factors, including motivational climate, basic psychological needs, and motivation. The GFI, CFI, and TLI values > .90 are considered to indicate reasonable fit [58]. By contrast, Bollen (1989) considered that absolute fit indices and incremental fit indices > .85 are also acceptable in pioneering studies [59]. SRMR and RMSEA values < .08 denotes an acceptable fit to the model [60], while CMIN/DF < 5 indicates a reasonable fit [61]. All SEM analyses in this investigation were completed using AMOS 26.0. To quantify the relationships between variables and interpret the outcomes, the standardized regression coefficient was used. In accordance with the effect size criteria: .10 is small, .30 is moderate, .50 is large [62].

Results

Preliminary analysis

A few subjects (n = 6) completed questionnaires with a small amount of missing data. Hence, missing values in each individual case were replaced with the mean of the non-missing items from the relevant subscale [63]. The research data were meticulously examined to identify both multivariate and univariate outliers. According to Tabachnick and Fidell’s (2007) findings, research data can be considered normal if the standardized z-score falls within the range of ± 3.29 [64]. Therefore, no out-of-range responses were found in the sample data. However, Mardia’s coefficient (Mardia’s normalized coefficient = 18.49) implied that the sample data deviated from multivariate normality. Considering the sample size and deviation from multivariate normality, the bootstrapping procedure with 5000 iterations has been used when the data depart from normality to increase the stability of parameter estimates within multivariate analyses [65].

Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to evaluate the internal consistency of the questionaries (see Table 2), which ranged from .78 to .97: ego-involving climate (α = .93) and task-involving climate (α = .97); relatedness (α = .78); autonomy (α = .89), and competence (α = .92); amotivation (α = .87), autonomous motivation (α = .92); emotional and physical exhaustion (α = .87), reduced sense of accomplishment (α = .86), and sport devaluation (α = .84), with all values above the threshold of 0.70 [53]. These results suggested that all of the subscales had acceptable internal consistency.

Table 2 Descriptive statistics, reliability estimates, and bivariate correlations

Descriptive statistics

Several findings can be drawn from the means and standard deviations (see Table 2). Firstly, on average, elite college skiers tended to display high levels of autonomous motivation (M = 5.56, SD = 1.05) and low levels of amotivation (M = 2.48, SD = 1.26). Secondly, the measures of motivational climate showed a higher mean for task-involving climate (M = 4.40, SD = .78) and a lower mean for ego-involving climate (M = 2.93, SD = 1.03). Thirdly, subjects display high levels of all three dimensions of basic psychological needs, with autonomy (M = 5.38, SD = 1.18), competence (M = 5.58, SD = 1.17), and relatedness (M = 5.84, SD = 1.24). Finally, subjects scored lower on two dimensions of burnout syndrome, including emotional and physical exhaustion (M = 1.76, SD = .79), sport devaluation (M = 1.90, SD = .89), while the reduced sense of personal accomplishment (M = 2.53, SD = .70) scored the highest of the three dimensions. Overall, subjects demonstrated high levels of task-involving climate, basic psychological needs, and autonomous motivation.

In addition, Pearson correlations between various motivational factors and three dimensions of burnout syndrome which have statistically significant values can also be observed in Table 2. With respect to the sign of values, the number of positive and negative signs is well-balanced. Specifically, task-involving climate, three dimensions of basic phycological needs, and autonomous motivation were negatively related to three dimensions of burnout syndrome, while ego-involving climate and amotivation were positively related to three dimensions of burnout syndrome. In these significantly correlated relationships between different variables, the strongest association between amotivation and sport devaluation (r = 0.33, p < .01). This was followed by a strong association between autonomy and a reduced sense of accomplishment (r = -.32, p < .01), while the weakest association was found between competence and emotional and physical exhaustion (r = -.15, p < .01).

Structural equation modelling

In accordance with the formulated hypotheses, the model incorporates four manifest variables, including autonomous motivation, amotivation, task-involving climate, and ego-involving climate, while basic psychological needs and burnout are two latent variables. The SDT-based model with the outcomes of various motivational factors and burnout syndrome showed an acceptable fit to the data (see Fig. 2): (χ2 = 116, df = 39, p < .001, TLI = .90, CFI = .92, GFI = .94, RMSEA = .08, SRMR = .04, 90% CI = .07 to .10). Moreover, Bootstrapping with 5000 iterations was used to evaluate the stability of the parameter estimates in the structural model, and the results are shown in Table 3, indicating high parameter stability.

Fig. 2

Standardized path coefficients from the SDT structural models. Note: BASIC NEED SAT = basic needs satisfaction; AUTO MOTI = autonomous motivation; AMOTI = amotivation; *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Table 3 Standardized coefficients from the hypothesized model and the bootstrap analysis

Obviously, the research findings supported the hypotheses proposed in this study. Specifically: (a) A large positive correlation (β = .52) was found between task-involving climate and basic psychological needs, while a small negative correlation (β = -.19) was found between ego-involving climate and basic psychological needs; (b) A large positive correlation (β = .50) was found between basic psychological needs and autonomous motivation, while a small to moderate negative correlation (β = -.26) was found between basic psychological needs and amotivation; (c) A moderate positive correlation (β = .31) was found between amotivation and burnout syndrome, while a small to moderate negative correlation (β = -.25) was found between autonomous motivation and burnout syndrome.

Discussion

The primary objective of the current research, which builds on and extends previous motivation research based on the SDT, was to evaluate a model hypothesizing the association between a series of motivational factors in HMIEM and burnout syndrome. The study’s findings support the proposed model, in which burnout syndrome forms part of the motivational sequence. Moreover, the hypothesized associations within the model are substantiated by these findings. Overall, elite college skiers showed positive motivational patterns, with high levels of task-involving climate, basic psychological needs, and autonomous motivation, and they reported lower levels of burnout syndrome. This study focuses on skiers and reveals the association between traditional elements of the HMIEM and burnout syndrome, filling a gap in the literature. Importantly, this research may also contribute to addressing real-life issues for athletes, such as underperformance and mental health problems.

Motivational climate and basic psychological needs

The findings of the present study provided substantial support for the proposed model. The results revealed that elite college skiers’ perceptions of a task-involving climate have a significant positive relationship to their basic need satisfaction in the first part of the hypothesized sequence, which aligns with previous research [66,67,68]. Specifically, coaching that fosters a task-involving climate is not limited to skill development but also includes fostering positive and supportive relationships with athletes. This approach involves instilling a sense of purpose in athletes, cultivating their self-beliefs, and valuing their autonomy. As a result, those basic needs are fulfilled, leading to heightened need satisfaction among athletes. In contrast, an ego-involving climate was negatively related to basic need satisfaction, as found in previous research [69]. It tends to prioritize individual achievements and ego-driven outcomes over the holistic growth and well-being of athletes. Such an environment diminishes the significance of building healthy relationships, fostering positive beliefs, and respecting athletes’ autonomy, consequently undermining the fulfillment of their core needs.

Evidently, when these elite college skiers are immersed in a setting that prioritizes intra-team competition, where comparisons among teammates are prevalent and recognition is reserved only for the most skilled players, it is highly prone to undermine the sense of belonging and intimacy within the team. The results from the present study showed that an ego-involving climate may not be conducive to the need satisfaction of elite college skiers, who greatly benefit from being nurtured, valued, and accepted by those whose opinions hold significant weight. However, these results differ from the earlier research conducted by García-González et al. (2019), who revealed no association between ego-involving climate and basic needs satisfaction [70]. The divergence in findings could potentially be attributed to different subjects, the ego-involving climate may not have had a negative or noticeable effect on basic psychological needs for some participants. Therefore, it is inferred that there can be some moderating variable between the ego-involving climate and the basic psychological needs, such as perceived ability.

This part of the study provides evidence for the role of motivational models in sports by highlighting the correlation between motivational climates and basic psychological needs. These findings emphasize the significance of fostering a supportive, task-involving climate that prioritizes personal growth and cooperation, while discouraging ego-involving behaviors such as excessive comparison, seeking external validation, and adopting overly competitive approaches. These measures are crucial for improving athletes’ satisfaction with basic psychological needs.

Basic psychological needs and motivation

The findings revealed a large positive correlation between basic psychological needs and autonomous motivation, while a small negative correlation was observed with amotivation. These results provide valuable insights into the motivational factors within the context of skiing and highlight the importance of satisfying basic psychological needs for fostering athletes’ motivation.

According to the self-determination theory (SDT), people have basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, our findings support the notion that these basic psychological needs play essential role in determining individuals’ motivation levels. The positive correlation between basic psychological needs and autonomous motivation suggests that when elite college skiers perceive their basic psychological needs as being met, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, engaged, and actively involved in skiing. This finding aligns with previous research in various domains, including sports and education, where the satisfaction of basic psychological needs has a positive relationship to autonomous motivation [71,72,73].

The negative correlation between basic psychological needs and amotivation is consistent with previous research [40, 74], indicating that when elite college skiers perceive their needs as unmet or frustrated, they are more likely to experience a lack of motivation or indifference towards skiing. This finding is in line with the concept of amotivation, which refers to a state of lacking any motivation or intention to engage in an activity. When individuals’ basic psychological needs are not satisfied, they may feel disconnected, incompetent, or controlled, which can lead to diminished motivation and disengagement [75].

These findings have practical implications for college ski programs and coaches who aim to enhance skiers’ motivation and overall performance. By recognizing and addressing the basic psychological needs of their athletes, coaches can create a supportive environment that fosters autonomous motivation and reduces amotivation. For example, coaches can provide opportunities for skiers to make choices and have control over their training and competition schedules (autonomy). They can also focus on developing skiers’ skills and competencies through effective training programs and individualized feedback (competence). Furthermore, coaches can promote a sense of belongingness and social support within the team, encouraging positive relationships and a supportive team climate (relatedness).

This part of the study underscores the necessity of satisfying basic psychological needs for fostering autonomous motivation and reducing amotivation. By considering these findings, coaches and practitioners can design interventions and create environments that support skiers’ basic psychological needs, leading to enhanced motivation and engagement in sports.

Motivation and burnout syndrome

Our findings revealed insights into the role of motivation in influencing the development of burnout syndrome in a particular population of skiers. The results demonstrated that there were distinct correlations between motivation and burnout syndrome, highlighting the importance of understanding motivational factors in managing and preventing burnout among elite college skiers.

It is worth noting that people may be more likely to experience symptoms of burnout during the winter months, while the subjects in this study did not show high levels of burnout, with two of the dimensions exhibiting low levels, including emotional and physical exhaustion and sport devaluation. It is inseparable from the care of coaches and the support of the leadership of these universities. According to the investigation, it was found that most of the coaches have participated in mental health courses, and applied the knowledge they learned to sports training, which could be effective in preventing psychological burnout in athletes. From the results, this method is effective, so it is necessary to train coaches on mental health. Furthermore, these universities involved in this study had mental health counseling offices not only in campus but also at a ski resort which far away from the universities, which is beneficial to reduce symptoms of psychological burnout among athletes.

Furthermore, the results indicate that autonomous motivation, which reflects an individual’s intrinsic drive and enjoyment for engaging in an activity, was found to have a small to moderate negative correlation with burnout syndrome. This suggests that self-motivated elite collegiate skiers are less likely to experience emotional and physical exhaustion, sport devaluation, and a reduced sense of accomplishment, which are key components of burnout syndrome. This finding aligns with previous research that highlights the protective nature of autonomous motivation against burnout in various domains, including sports [39, 76, 77]. Elite college skiers who derive genuine pleasure and satisfaction from skiing may be better equipped to cope with the challenges and demands of their sport, reducing their susceptibility to burnout.

Conversely, the findings revealed that amotivation, representing the absence of motivation or a lack of perceived relevance for the activity, had a moderate positive correlation with burnout syndrome, which aligns with previous research [76, 78, 79]. This result suggests that elite college skiers who feel unmotivated or disinterested in skiing are more likely to experience burnout-related symptoms. These individuals may struggle to find meaning and purpose in their athletic pursuits, leading to a sense of various dimensions of burnout syndrome, highlighting the detrimental impact of amotivation on psychological well-being and performance in sports [80].

The significant associations observed in this study emphasize the importance of fostering autonomous motivation and addressing amotivation among elite college skiers. Coaches, sports psychologists, and educators should consider implementing strategies that promote intrinsic motivation, such as offering opportunities for athletes to experience autonomy, competence, and relatedness within their sport. Encouraging skiers to set personally meaningful goals, providing positive feedback, and facilitating a supportive team environment may also contribute to enhancing autonomous motivation and reducing the risk of burnout.

Our study highlights the crucial role of motivation in shaping the experiences of elite college skiers. Autonomous motivation emerged as a protective factor against burnout syndrome, while amotivation showed a positive relationship to burnout-related symptoms. The findings emphasize the need for interventions that foster autonomous motivation and address the lack of motivation to promote athletes’ well-being and enhance their sporting experiences.

Practical implications

The findings of the present research have significant practical implications for the field of sports psychology and the well-being of athletes. By examining the association between motivational processes and burnout syndrome in skiers using the HMIEM model, this research sheds light on the underlying motivational mechanisms that contribute to burnout in athletes. In this study, burnout syndrome is negatively related to autonomous motivation and positively related to amotivation. Notably, considering the association between motivational sequences and burnout syndrome, the coaching style may positively affect athletes’ motivation and prevent burnout status regarding training and competition. The identification of these motivational processes provides valuable insights for sports psychologists, trainers, and coaches in developing targeted interventions to prevent and address burnout among athletes. Understanding how motivation plays a role in burnout syndrome can aid in designing tailored training programs, implementing appropriate support systems, and fostering a positive and balanced athlete experience.

Furthermore, the study’s contribution to the broader understanding of motivation and burnout syndrome is noteworthy. Since there is a paucity of research linking burnout syndrome to motivation in skiers, the results lend support to the existing body of literature that highlights the interplay between motivation and burnout. This, in turn, strengthens the theoretical foundation of the HMIEM and provides a more comprehensive framework for studying athlete well-being and performance. Researchers and practitioners can build upon these findings to refine existing models and develop new theories that delve deeper into the complexities of motivation and its impact on athlete mental health.

Limitations

There are several limitations to this study. Firstly, although the primary population of this study was elite college skiers, the sample size of top-level skiers was insufficient, representing only 2.8% of the overall subjects. As with any study, recruiting a larger sample size allows for a more in-depth analysis. Secondly, while the gender imbalance in the sample is typical of the distribution of college athletes, it may introduce a gender-related bias to our findings. Since no further comparative analysis was conducted in this study, we will focus on comparative research in future research, including gender, sport type (team or individual), training volume, etc. Thirdly, the reliance on self-report measures implies the possibility of mono-method bias. This may inflate associations between variables and partially explain the magnitude of the effects. To alleviate this issue, future studies could consider a broader range of basic psychological needs and motivational climates, such as basic needs frustration or observations of motivational climates from the perspective of parents or teammates. Finally, one notable limitation arises from the cross-sectional design used in the present research, which prevents the investigation of temporal prioritization, and did not examine the relationship between motivational processes and burnout syndromes that develop over time. Considering that the mediation effects may fluctuate over time [81], future researchers could revisit the current model using a longitudinal approach to overcome this limitation. By doing so, a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamic relationships between variables can be attained. Notably, surveys after the end of the season competition may be particularly valuable, as there is evidence that burnout develops and takes shape over an extended long period of time [82].

Conclusions

The present study was a systematic examination of the relationship between burnout syndrome and exercise motivation in elite skiers in a culturally specific context in China, and was tested in the HMIEM model. While some previous studies have explored the relationship between exercise motivation and burnout, our study is novel in that it focuses on the study of burnout syndromes in a specific population (elite skiers) and the particular challenges posed by integrating burnout syndromes into the HMIEM. The focus on a specific sports context and a structural model enhances the practical applicability of our findings and adds to existing research on motivational processes and burnout syndromes in athletes. Specifically, it demonstrates that a task-involving climate is positively related to basic psychological needs, and negatively affects burnout syndrome through autonomous motivation. In contrast, an ego-involving climate was negatively correlated with basic psychological needs, and positively influenced burnout syndrome through amotivation. The results suggest that factors affecting skiers’ burnout syndrome can be explained by a series of motivational processes in HMIEM at the contextual level. Overall, this study emphasizes the significance of athletes’ perceptions of their task-involving climate, basic psychological needs, and autonomous motivation being satisfied.