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Mediating role of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy in the stress and academic engagement of Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments

BMC Psychology volume 12, Article number: 481 (2024) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Remote education emerged as an option during the COVID-19 pandemic; however, this modality continues to be used by various universities around the world in the postpandemic context. The aim of this study was to determine the mediating role of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy in the influence of stress on the academic engagement of Peruvian university students during remote teaching by COVID-19 using structural equation modeling (SEM).

Method

This study involved 1,468 students from nine public and private universities in northern Peru who had undergraduate and graduate distance learning programs.

Results

The results showed that stress negatively influenced academic engagement (β=-0.107*) and digital skills (β=-0.328***). In addition, digital skills (β = 0.470**) and mobile self-efficacy (β = 0.684***) positively influence academic engagement. Similarly, digital skills mediate the relationship between stress and academic engagement (β=-0.154**), and both variables act as sequential mediators in this relationship (β=-0.348***).

Conclusion

This study provides a deeper understanding of the factors that influence academic engagement during Remote education and lays the groundwork for the development of interventions and training programs tailored to hybrid learning contexts that promote the well-being and academic success of college students in postpandemic times.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic triggered unprecedented disruptions across multiple social, economic, and technological spheres globally. Furthermore, this event profoundly transformed the dynamics of social interaction, work paradigms, and educational models, driving significant acceleration toward digitalization and the adoption of emerging technologies [1]. The repercussions of this global health crisis in higher education forced institutions to swiftly adapt to emergency remote teaching as a measure to ensure the continuity of learning [2, 3]. This rapid and forced transition posed multiple challenges for university students, who had to face the need to acquire new digital skills, adapt to online learning methodologies, and deal with increased stress and anxiety, all within a context of uncertainty and social isolation [4,5,6].

Various studies have documented the negative impact of the pandemic on the mental and emotional well-being of university students [7,8,9]. The abrupt shift to Remote education led to concentration difficulties, a lack of motivation, feelings of loneliness, and an increased workload, contributing to elevated stress and anxiety levels [10, 11]. Additionally, preexisting digital divides have been exacerbated, exposing inequalities in access to technological resources and the digital skills necessary for successful adaptation to this new learning environment [12, 13].

In the postpandemic era, Remote education has become an essential component of educational practices, generating both opportunities and challenges related to the digital divide and equitable access to education [14]. However, university students continue to face various challenges in Remote education, such as mental health issues, unreliable internet connections, slow e-learning platforms, lack of ICT skills, poor time management, and distractions [15]. Furthermore, maintaining attention and concentration during classes despite environmental distractions and sustaining motivation despite a lack of direct interaction, social isolation, and excessive computer screen time are some of the major challenges for students [16]. Student characteristics such as digital literacy, self-directed learning, motivation to learn, and perceived stress are significant predictors of online learning engagement [17]. Technological dependency and digital literacy contribute significantly to higher stress levels, which adversely affect academic performance and productivity [18].

Although multiple studies have analyzed the impact of the pandemic on higher education [13, 19], it is still unknown how stress influences students’ academic engagement. Moreover, few studies have specifically addressed the mediating role of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy between stress and academic engagement among Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments [8, 12]. Peru is one of the Latin American countries most affected by the pandemic, with significant challenges in terms of access to and quality of Remote education [20, 21]. Therefore, it is important to investigate the factors that can influence students’ ability to cope with stress and maintain their academic engagement during remote teaching in the postpandemic context. Additionally, understanding the influence of stress on academic engagement is relevant, as more than 87% of students expressed a medium to high vulnerability to stress, and 58% were affected by severe anxiety during online education [22]. Recent studies suggest that students’ digital skills and mobile self-efficacy can act as important mediators in this relationship [23, 24]. Greater digital competence and confidence in using mobile technologies for learning could mediate the negative impact of stress and promote greater involvement and satisfaction with online studies [25, 26].

The main objective of the study was to determine the mediating role of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy in the influence of stress on the academic engagement of Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments [27, 28]. This study presents two innovations. First, it analyzes the mediating role of digital skills in the influence of stress and academic engagement. Second, it introduces the construct of mobile self-efficacy, which refers to an individual’s belief or confidence in his or her ability to effectively use and leverage mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, to perform various tasks and achieve specific goals [29]. This concept is closely related to computer self-efficacy, which focuses on an individual’s belief in his or her ability to use computers [30]. Additionally, the following specific objectives are proposed: (1) to analyze the direct relationships between these variables and (2) to determine the indirect effect of stress on academic engagement through digital skills and mobile self-efficacy.

This study provides a better understanding of the factors influencing the academic engagement and well-being of Peruvian university students in the context of remote teaching during the pandemic [31, 32]. These findings will be valuable to the academic community, providing empirical evidence that guides the design of psychoeducational interventions and institutional policies aimed at strengthening students’ digital skills and mobile self-efficacy, as well as mitigating the negative impact of stress on their mental health and academic performance during this period of health and educational crisis [33, 34]. Additionally, this study is expected to lay the groundwork for future research on the factors that promote the resilience and adaptability of university students in the face of disruptive situations such as the pandemic, thus contributing to the generation of knowledge in.

Literature review

E-learning during COVID-19 and in the postpandemic context

During the COVID-19 pandemic, university students have faced numerous challenges in adapting to e-learning, including technical issues, a lack of practical interaction, and psychological stress. These factors, combined with the need for interactive tools and increased instructor involvement, highlighted inequalities in access to and the effectiveness of distance learning [35,36,37]. Additionally, students confronted the need to acquire new digital skills and adapt to online learning methodologies, all within an environment of uncertainty and social isolation [19, 27]. As a result, students experience an increased burden of stress and anxiety, which impacts their mental and emotional well-being [8, 38]. Among the main challenges reported by students were family distractions, a lack of suitable study space, internet connectivity issues, communication difficulties with teachers, and gaps in practical learning skills [31, 34].

Instructors also face significant challenges in transitioning to remote teaching, such as a lack of personal contact with students, increased workload and stress, deficiencies in technical equipment and digital skills, and difficulties in providing individualized support to at-risk students [6, 27]. This has led to the need to develop well-planned policies and curricula, provide opportunities for enhancing teachers’ digital competencies, and create sustainable working conditions to counteract the effects of high workloads [39, 40].

Despite these challenges, various pedagogical methods supported by digital technologies have been implemented in the realm of distance education. These include virtual learning platforms, the strategic use of social media for interaction and student engagement, the distribution of content through prerecorded videos to facilitate autonomous learning, and online discussion forums that promote the exchange of ideas and collaborative knowledge building, with mixed perceptions of their effectiveness [8, 19]. While some advantages of digital learning, such as greater flexibility, are recognized, students have reported lower motivation, lack of concentration, and concern due to workload overload and the overall situation [31, 38].

In the postpandemic era, e-learning has transitioned from an emergency response to an indispensable component of the educational landscape, catalyzing its widespread adoption and revealing both its potential and the challenges associated with the digital divide and equitable access to education [41]. The exploration of innovative technologies, such as mobile virtual reality (VR), points toward more interactive and personalized learning environments [42], while significant challenges in terms of connectivity, technological infrastructure, and pedagogical efficacy persist [43]. The pandemic has highlighted inequalities in access to e-learning, underscoring the urgent need for strategies that ensure that e-learning is a viable and equitable educational option and emphasizing the importance of an informed evolution in education to address these disparities [44]. The future of e-learning appears to be moving toward greater integration of advanced technologies and pedagogical practices, with the aim of enhancing educational outcomes and expanding access to education globally, as the fusion of technological innovation and educational equity emerges as a critical dialog to shape the trajectory of e-learning in the postpandemic era.

Therefore, it is relevant to investigate the factors that can influence students’ ability to cope with stress and maintain their academic engagement during remote teaching. Digital skills and mobile self-efficacy are emerging as potential mediators in this relationship, as greater digital competence and confidence in the use of mobile technologies for learning could mitigate the negative impact of stress and promote greater involvement and satisfaction with online studies [34, 39]. However, more research is still needed, especially in the Peruvian context, to better understand these dynamics and develop effective strategies that promote the well-being and academic success of university students in times of crisis.

Stress as a determinant of academic engagement in postpandemic virtual environments

The COVID-19 pandemic and the forced transition to Remote education have led to a significant increase in stress levels among university students [5, 8]. Stress, understood as an adaptive response of the body to demands perceived as excessive or threatening [45], can negatively impact academic engagement, which refers to students’ active participation and involvement in their learning activities [11].

Various studies have documented how the stress generated by the pandemic situation and the difficulties associated with Remote education have affected the mental and emotional well-being of students, leading to a higher prevalence of anxiety, depression, and burnout [10, 40]. These negative emotional states can in turn decrease the motivation, concentration, and academic performance of students, compromising their ability to fully engage in their studies [27].

Specific stressors of Remote education that can affect academic engagement include workload overload, technical difficulties, lack of direct interaction with peers and professors, and the interference of family and domestic responsibilities with learning activities [31, 34]. This can generate feelings of isolation, frustration, and overwhelm, reducing student satisfaction and interest in their studies [1, 19].

Moreover, the uncertainty and constant changes in teaching and assessment modalities during the pandemic have been additional sources of stress for students [6, 8]. The lack of clarity in academic expectations and the perception of a lower quality of education received can generate worry and demotivation, affecting students’ commitment to their learning process [39].

In the postpandemic period, distance education has persisted in various universities. Although some students have managed to adapt to this form of learning, for many others, the aforementioned challenges persist, continuing to affect their mental health and academic performance [46, 47]. Therefore, it is relevant to analyze the factors that can act as buffers against stress and promoters of academic engagement in the context of Remote education. Greater competence in using technological tools and increased confidence in the ability to learn through mobile devices could help students better face the challenges of Remote education, reducing the negative impact of stress and promoting greater commitment to their studies [39].

Research hypothesis formulation

Previous research has suggested that stress has a negative impact on the academic engagement of students in the context of Remote education during the COVID-19 pandemic [5, 11] [8]. reported that the abrupt shift to Remote education generated an increase in stress levels and a decrease in the motivation and concentration of students, affecting their ability to fully engage in their academic activities. Moreover [10], reported that the stress associated with the pandemic situation and the difficulties of Remote education were linked to a greater prevalence of anxiety and depression among students, which in turn compromised their academic performance and participation in learning activities. Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is formulated:

Hypothesis 1

Stress negatively influences students’ academic engagement in the context of Remote education.

Recent literature has established that the stress experienced by students during Remote education can have a negative impact on the development of their digital skills [6, 31] [38]. reported that students who reported higher levels of stress and anxiety due to the transition to Remote education had more difficulties adapting to the use of new technological tools and online learning platforms. Moreover [34], indicated that the overwhelm and frustration generated by technical challenges and workload in Remote education can decrease students’ motivation to acquire and improve their digital competencies. Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 2

Stress negatively influences the digital skills of students during Remote education.

According to findings reported in the scientific literature, stress can have a negative effect on the mobile self-efficacy of students, that is, their confidence in using mobile devices for learning purposes in the context of Remote education [2] [39]. reported that students who experienced higher levels of stress and concern during the pandemic reported lower self-efficacy for the use of mobile educational applications and resources, which in turn affected their ability to adapt and commit to virtual teaching. Furthermore [1], noted that the stress generated by uncertainty and constant changes in assessment modalities during Remote education could diminish students’ confidence in their ability to perform adequately using mobile technologies. Therefore, the following hypothesis is formulated:

Hypothesis 3

Stress negatively influences the mobile self-efficacy of students during Remote education.

The mediating role of digital skills in influencing stress and academic engagement in students in remote education

Student digital skills have played a crucial role in adapting to Remote education during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to specialized literature, these skills can act as mediating factors in the relationship between experienced stress and students’ academic engagement in this context [8]. found that a lack of digital skills and accessibility issues were some of the main challenges faced by students, parents, and teachers in the transition to Remote education in Mexico.

In a study with university chemistry students [48], developed flexible and remote laboratory experiments that students could perform at home during the pandemic. The evaluation demonstrated that these experiments were effective in providing a quality and equitable practical experience without compromising the rigor and learning objectives of the course. Furthermore, students reported that having flexible and remote experiments decreased their stress levels during a highly stressful semester.

On the other hand [40], reported that during school closures in Germany, students spent more time each day watching television, playing video games, and using their mobile phones than they did during school closures. The surveys also included evaluations of the effectiveness of home learning, mental stress, physical inactivity, social skills, independent learning, and digital literacy.

Therefore, students’ digital skills can influence their ability to cope with stress and maintain their academic engagement during Remote education. Those with greater competence in using technological tools could better adapt to the demands of online learning, which in turn would buffer the negative impact of stress on their involvement and satisfaction with their studies [48].

However, the lack of these skills, combined with accessibility issues and a preference for nonacademic online activities, could exacerbate the stress experienced and hinder engagement with remote learning [8, 40]. Therefore, it is crucial to further investigate the mediating role of digital skills in this relationship to design educational interventions that promote their development and thereby favor student adaptation and performance in distance education contexts.

Scientific support of the research hypotheses

Empirical evidence has shown that students’ digital skills play a crucial role in their academic engagement in Remote education [49]. highlighted that academic participation in remote classes is vital for student learning and that strategies such as academic games can create a more effective learning community, increase student satisfaction and motivation, reduce student isolation, and improve student performance. However [50], noted that insufficient technological skills can be a disconnection factor, even when innovative approaches such as digital storytelling (DST) are employed in emergency Remote education due to COVID-19.

Furthermore, according to [51], the development of students’ soft skills in distance learning is directly affected by the adequacy of technological and digital learning resources (DLR), with students’ perceived efficacy serving as a mediator in this relationship. This suggests that students’ ability to effectively use digital tools influences their engagement and academic success in remote settings.

Meanwhile [52], states that the overlap between personal and educational digital engagement of high school students is not necessarily positive, indicating mixed roles, both facilitating and obstructive, of digital skills in academic engagement. Additionally [53], emphasized the importance of developing digital skills in teachers to support student engagement, as a diagnosis of the digital competencies of secondary school teachers at the onset of emergency remote teaching due to COVID-19 revealed that while they had knowledge of basic digital tools, they lacked familiarity with educational platforms for virtual teaching.

Hypothesis 4

Digital skills influence students’ academic engagement during Remote education.

Previous studies have shown that digital skills mediate the influence of stress on students’ academic engagement in Remote education. Studies have shown that students’ preparedness for digital learning affects their socioemotional perceptions, including stress [2], and that digital literacy impacts the psychological well-being of educators, affecting the effectiveness of remote teaching and learning [54]. Moreover, the adequacy of technological and digital learning resources affects the development of students’ soft skills, with perceived efficacy as a mediator [51], while students’ digital maturity impacts participation in online learning [55]. In summary, enhancing digital skills among students and educators is crucial for addressing the challenges of Remote education, mitigating the negative impact of stress, and promoting a healthier and more effective learning environment. Therefore, the following is formulated:

Hypothesis 5

Digital skills mediate the influence of stress on students’ academic engagement during Remote education.

The mediating role of mobile self-efficacy in influencing stress and academic engagement in students in postpandemic virtual environments

Previous research has shown that mobile self-efficacy, which refers to students’ confidence in their ability to use mobile technologies for learning, can play a mediating role in the relationship between stress and academic engagement in Remote education contexts [28, 52, 56, 57]. Although direct evidence on this topic is limited, several studies provide a basis for understanding the underlying dynamics. For instance [58], found that self-efficacy and positive emotions significantly mediated the relationship between promotion focus and engagement in online learning, while [59] revealed that mobile technology self-efficacy played a moderating role in technostress, indicating that students’ confidence in their mobile technological skills can influence how stress affects their academic performance. Furthermore [60], demonstrated the mediating role of academic engagement in the relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic performance. These findings suggest that mobile self-efficacy can act as a mediator in the relationship between stress and students’ academic engagement during Remote education. Enhancing students’ confidence in their ability to use mobile technologies for learning purposes could help mitigate the adverse effects of stress on their engagement and academic performance. However, more research specifically focused on the mediating role of mobile self-efficacy is needed to obtain stronger evidence and develop effective strategies that support students in Remote education [52, 58].

Scientific support of the research hypotheses

Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to successfully execute a specific task [61, 62]. In the educational context, mobile self-efficacy can influence students’ adoption and use of mobile technologies for learning purposes [63]. Students with high mobile self-efficacy tend to perceive mobile devices as useful tools for enhancing their learning and are more willing to utilize them in their education [64].

The scientific literature has established that mobile self-efficacy plays a crucial role in determining students’ academic engagement in Remote education. Studies have shown that ICT self-efficacy partially mediates the relationship between perceived teacher support and students’ academic engagement [65] and that course-specific self-efficacy and the characteristics of the learning environment are significantly associated with engagement in mobile learning contexts [57]. Additionally, it has been found that mobile technology self-efficacy moderates technostress and can mitigate its negative effects on academic performance [59]. Therefore, these findings suggest that enhancing mobile self-efficacy could lead to better academic outcomes by increasing students’ confidence in using mobile technologies for learning and reducing the potential negative impacts of technostress. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 6

Mobile self-efficacy influences students’ academic engagement during Remote education.

The current scientific literature highlights the importance of mobile self-efficacy, i.e., students’ confidence in their ability to effectively use mobile technologies in learning contexts, as a mediating factor in the relationship between stress and academic engagement during Remote education. Previous research has identified ICT self-efficacy as an element that modulates online learning experiences, affecting both students’ ability to manage stress related to technology use and their level of participation in academic activities. For instance [58], demonstrated that self-efficacy and academic emotions mediate the relationship between regulatory focus and engagement in online learning, suggesting a similar role for mobile self-efficacy in the context of academic stress. Moreover [60], found that academic self-efficacy has a direct impact on performance and can mediate the relationship between academic engagement and performance, suggesting that higher mobile self-efficacy could counteract the effects of stress in Remote education. Additionally, the study by Qi (2019) on technostress and mobile technology self-efficacy supports the idea that self-efficacy in using mobile devices can attenuate the negative effects of technological stress, improving academic performance. Based on this, the following hypotheses are formulated:

Hypothesis 7

Mobile self-efficacy mediates the influence of stress on students’ academic engagement during Remote education.

Hypothesis 8

Digital skills and mobile self-efficacy sequentially mediate the effect of stress on academic engagement.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Proposed research model. Note. ST: Stress; DS: Digital skill; AC: Academic engagement; TSELF: Technological self-efficacy

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Figure 1 presents the research model, which is scientifically grounded in previous studies justifying the hypotheses presented earlier. The research model identifies four constructs: ST, DS, AC, and TSELF. ST represents a physical, mental, and emotional response to a stimulus or situation that disrupts an individual’s equilibrium [66]. It is a natural reaction of an organism to the demands and challenges of life and can be either positive (eustress) or negative (distress) [67]. In the educational context, stress can arise from various factors, such as academic workload, pressures to achieve good grades, social relationships with peers and professors, and the challenges of balancing academic responsibilities with personal life [68]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, university students faced additional sources of stress related to virtual education, such as adapting to new technologies and learning methods, a lack of direct social interaction, technical problems, and difficulties in maintaining motivation and academic engagement [22]. Prolonged or excessive stress can negatively affect students’ physical and mental health, academic performance, and overall well-being [68]. Therefore, it is crucial for educational institutions and students to develop effective strategies to manage and cope with stress, especially in the context of virtual education during and after the pandemic [15].

DS, also known as digital skills, refer to the set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to effectively and efficiently use digital technologies in various contexts, such as educational, work, and personal [69]. In postpandemic virtual environments, digital skills have gained increased importance. Students with strong digital skills are better prepared to adapt to online learning environments, effectively use digital platforms and tools, and face any technical challenges that may arise [16, 18].

TSELF refers to an individual’s belief or confidence in his or her ability to effectively use and leverage mobile devices to perform various tasks and achieve specific goals [63,64,65].

Finally, AC refers to the degree to which students are committed, involved, and actively participating in their learning and related educational activities [70]. It is a multidimensional concept encompassing behavioral, emotional, and cognitive aspects [71].

Materials and methods

This research led to an empirical evaluation since the purpose was to determine the mediating role of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy in the influence of stress on the academic engagement of Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments [72]. On the other hand, the nature of the study has a nonexperimental design and is cross-sectional since its purpose is not to manipulate the variables under study and the measurement was performed in a single period of time [73].

Participants

The study included 1,468 university students from nine public and private universities in northern Peru. To access the study sample, a nonprobabilistic accidental method [74] was used, where students decided to participate voluntarily and signed informed consent before being included in the research. This approach ensured wide variety in the sample, encompassing different academic disciplines and socioeconomic contexts, although it also implied certain limitations in terms of representativeness and generalizability of the results.

Table 1 details the sociodemographic variables of the study participants. Of the 1,486 university students, 56.59% (841 participants) were female, and 43.40% (645 participants) were male. Regarding age, 30.55% (454 participants) were 21–23 years old, 15.94% (237 participants) were 24–27 years old, 10.36% (154 participants) were 28–30 years old, 38.15% (567 participants) were under 20 years old, and 4.97% (74 participants) were over 31 years old. Concerning the family composition of the participants, 29.94% (445 participants) lived only with siblings, 6.40% (95 participants) with children, 39.63% (589 participants) with parents and siblings, the same percentage (6.40%, 95 participants) lived with a partner, and 17.63% (262 participants) lived alone. Finally, regarding the technological devices used for studying, 45.62% (678 participants) used a laptop or desktop computer, 37.95% (564 participants) used a cell phone, and 16.41% (244 participants) used a tablet.

Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the study sample (n = 1468)
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Data collection instruments

To structure the data collection instrument, a literature review was conducted to identify the constructs of ST, DS, TSELF, and AC [15, 16, 18, 22, 63,64,65,66,67,68, 70, 71]. Based on the theoretical foundation, the questionnaire items were drafted and organized into two sections:

In the first section, sociodemographic questions were presented, such as questions about age, gender, family composition during the emergency, and technological devices used for studying. The second section contained 36 items aimed at measuring the constructs of the research model, with 4 items corresponding to ST, 15 items corresponding to DS, 8 items corresponding to TSELF, and 9 items corresponding to AC.

A five-point response scale ranging from (0) never to (4) very often was used to measure the ST construct. The response scale for the DS construct consisted of two options: (0) NO and (1) YES. Finally, the response scales for the TSELF and AC constructs were Likert-type with five points, ranging from (1) never to (5) always.

Before applying the data collection instrument, the instrument was subjected to expert judgment, which yielded favorable results indicating that the items accurately measured each construct. Additionally, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to validate the measurement model, obtain appropriate goodness-of-fit indices, and demonstrate that the instrument meets quality tests (convergent reliability and discriminant validity).

Procedure and data analysis

The data were collected via an online survey from June to November 2023. The survey forms were sent to students via WhatsApp and email, allowing them to fill out the survey primarily on a voluntary basis. The average time to complete the form was 25 min. A total of 1,523 responses were collected from participants who voluntarily agreed to participate by completing the informed consent form. However, only 1,486 responses were analyzed because 37 responses were incomplete or had faulty data.

For the data analysis, the structural equation modeling (SEM) technique was employed, and the data were processed using the statistical software Smart-PLS [75]. This software uses the partial least squares (PLS) technique to test the proposed model. Reliability was assessed by analyzing factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, and composite reliability (CR), all of which exceeded 0.7 (Tables 2 and 3). The average variance extracted (AVE) was used to assess convergent validity, with values exceeding 0.5 (Table 3). Similarly, to evaluate discriminant validity, the criterion from [76] was followed, which assesses that the square root of the AVE of each construct (located on the diagonal) be greater than the correlations off the diagonal.

This robust approach to analyzing the survey data ensures the reliability and validity of the findings, providing a solid foundation for further interpretation and discussion of how the constructs of stress, digital skills, technology self-efficacy, and Academic Engagement interact in the context of Remote education during and after the pandemic.

Ethical aspects

All participants provided informed consent before participating in the study. In addition, the guidelines of the Helsinki declaration for data confidentiality and ethical principles in human research were followed.

Results

Results of the measurement model

Table 2 presents the results of the factor loadings. According to [77], it is recommended that factor loadings exceed 0.5, which in the study shows that all items exceed this threshold. On the other hand, the values of the variance inflation factor (VIF) in all the constructs are between 0.154 and 3.142, so it is established that they do not present collinearity problems.

Table 2 The statistical analysis of factor loadings and correlations
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Table 3 presents the outcomes of the reliability tests, as well as the discriminant and convergent validity tests. For Cronbach’s alpha (α) and composite reliability (CR) for measuring the reliability of the latent variable, following the criterion of [78], values above 0.70 are considered adequate; as illustrated in Table 2, all the constructs exceeded this threshold. The average variance extracted (AVE) is utilized to ascertain convergent validity, and as per [79], values exceeding 0.50 are deemed acceptable. Likewise, all model constructs exhibit values exceeding this threshold. The coefficient of determination (COD) values indicate that ST, DS, and TSELF explain 85.7% of the variation in AC. The ST and DS explain 56.2% of the variation in the TSELF. Moreover, ST explained 53.3% of the variation in DS.

Finally, discriminant validity was determined following the criterion of [76], which stipulates that for discriminant validity to exist, the square root of the AVE (numbers on the diagonal) must be greater than the correlations with other constructs (off-diagonal numbers in the same row and column). In addition, the heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) criterion was used, where values must be less than 0.90 for discriminant validity to exist. Consequently, as detailed in Table 3, all the constructs comply with discriminant validity.

Table 3 Reliability and discriminant and convergent validity
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Testing the research hypotheses

Table 4; Fig. 2 show the standardized path coefficients (B), p values, confidence intervals and standard deviations (SDs). The results show that H1 has a Path coefficient (B=-0.107) and a p-value 0.020 < 0.005, therefore, it is accepted. H2 presented uncoefficient Path (B=-328) and a p-value 0.002 < 0.001, therefore, it is accepted. H3 presented uncoefficient Path (B=-0.071) and a p-value 0.477 > 0.05, so it is accepted. H4 presented no coefficient path (B = 0.470) and p-values of 0.001 < 0.05. Finally, H6 presented a Path coefficient (B = 0.684) and a p-value 0.000 < 0.01, so it is also accepted.

Table 4 Testing of direct research hypotheses
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Table 5 Testing of indirect research hypotheses
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Fig. 2
figure 2

Resolved research model Note: At the intersections of the relationship lines are the path coefficients on the left and the p values on the right (inside the parentheses)

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Discussion

The objective of this research is to determine the mediating role of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy in the influence of stress on the Academic Engagement of Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments. To test the research hypotheses, an SEM was proposed, whose constructs met the criteria for reliability and convergent and discriminant validity. Regarding the coefficient of determination, the model demonstrated a high predictive capacity, where ST (stress), DS (digital skills), and TSELF (technology self-efficacy) explained 85.7% of the variation in AC (Academic Engagement); ST and DS explained 56.2% of the variation in TSELF. Moreover, ST explained 53.3% of the variation in DS.

Hypothesis 1

posited that stress negatively influences the Academic Engagement of students in postpandemic virtual environments, and this hypothesis was supported by a path coefficient B=-0.107 and a p value (p = 0.020 < 0.05). This result supports the notion that the stress perceived by students can compromise their ability to stay active and motivated in their activities in virtual environments. The negative magnitude of the coefficient suggests that as student stress increases, student engagement in academic activities correspondingly decreases. This finding is crucial for developing intervention strategies and is consistent with previous studies that have documented the negative impact of pandemic-generated stress and the difficulties associated with Remote education on students’ mental and emotional well-being, which affects their motivation, concentration, and academic performance [10]. Specific stressors of Remote education, such as workload overload, technical difficulties, and lack of direct interaction with peers and teachers, can decrease students’ satisfaction and interest in their studies [31, 34].

Hypothesis 2

which posited that stress negatively influences students’ digital skills in postpandemic virtual environments, was also supported by a path coefficient of B=-0.328 and a p value of 0.000 < 0.05. This indicates that stress not only decreases Academic Engagement but also significantly impacts students’ digital competence. The strong negative relationship indicated by the path coefficient suggests that as stress increases, the digital skills necessary to effectively manage learning platforms and technological tools deteriorate. This result is particularly significant, given that digital skills are fundamental for success in Remote educational environments. Additionally, this finding aligns with studies suggesting that the stress experienced by students during Remote education can hinder their adaptation to the use of new technological tools and online learning platforms [6, 38]. The overwhelm and frustration generated by technical challenges and workload in Remote education can decrease students’ motivation to acquire and improve their digital competencies [34].

Hypothesis 4

which postulated that digital skills influence the Academic Engagement of students in postpandemic virtual environments, was supported by a path coefficient of B = 0.470 and a p value (p = 0.001 < 0.05). This result suggested that students with greater competence in using technological tools could better adapt to the demands of online learning, which in turn would buffer the negative impact of stress on their involvement and satisfaction with their studies [48]. Conversely, the lack of these skills, combined with accessibility issues, could exacerbate the stress experienced and hinder commitment to remote learning [8, 40].

Hypothesis 5

which posited that digital skills mediate the influence of stress on students’ Academic Engagement in postpandemic virtual environments, was supported by a path coefficient of B=-0.154 and a p value (p = 0.001 < 0.05). This finding suggests that improving digital skills among students and educators is crucial for addressing the challenges of Remote education, mitigating the negative impact of stress, and promoting a healthier and more effective learning environment [2, 51].

Hypothesis 6

which postulated that mobile self-efficacy influences students’ Academic Engagement in postpandemic virtual environments, was supported by a path coefficient of B = 0.684 and a p value of 0.000 < 0.05. This result is consistent with previous studies that have demonstrated that self-efficacy in using mobile technologies for learning is significantly associated with engagement in mobile learning contexts [57] and that self-efficacy can mitigate the negative effects of technostress on academic performance [59].

Finally, Hypothesis 8, which posited that digital skills and mobile self-efficacy sequentially mediate the effect of stress on Academic Engagement, was supported by a path coefficient of B=-0.348 and a p value of 0.000 < 0.05. This result suggested that higher mobile self-efficacy could counteract the effects of stress in Remote education, improving students’ academic engagement [60].

Overall, the findings of this study underscore the complexity of the factors influencing the academic engagement of Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments. They highlight the negative impact of stress on Academic Engagement and digital skills, as well as the mediating role of these skills and mobile self-efficacy in this relationship. These results emphasize the importance of developing strategies that promote digital competencies and confidence in using mobile technologies for learning to mitigate the impact of stress and foster greater academic engagement in the context of Remote education. The implementation of these strategies requires an integrated approach that involves both students and educators and addresses both the learning environment and the development of individual skills.

Theoretical and practical implications

The findings of this study have significant theoretical and practical implications for the field of higher education in virtual environments in the postpandemic context, where Peruvian universities have not abandoned Remote education. In contrast, they have designed hybrid modalities, where a certain number of courses are conducted virtually and others are conducted face-to-face.

From a theoretical perspective, the results contribute to a better understanding of the factors influencing the academic engagement of university students during emergency Remote education. The study highlights the role of stress as a negative determinant of Academic Engagement and digital skills, as well as the mediating function of these skills and mobile self-efficacy in this relationship. These findings expand the existing knowledge about the psychological and technological mechanisms underlying academic engagement in virtual learning environments and underscore the importance of considering individual and contextual variables in the study of this phenomenon.

Additionally, the study provides empirical evidence on the relevance of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy as key resources for the adaptation and academic success of Remote education students. This finding supports and extends previous theories that emphasize the role of technological competencies and efficacy beliefs in online learning [51, 57] and suggests the need to integrate these constructs into explanatory models of academic engagement in virtual environments.

From a practical perspective, the study’s results have direct implications for the design of educational interventions and policies aimed at promoting the well-being and academic success of university students during and after the pandemic. First, the findings underline the need to develop stress prevention and management strategies in the context of Remote education, given its negative impact on Academic Engagement and digital skills. This could include psychological support programs, stress management workshops, and the promotion of self-care and resilience practices among students.

Second, the study highlights the importance of strengthening students’ digital skills as a means to mitigate the impact of stress and foster greater academic engagement in Remote education. This implies the need to implement digital literacy programs, training in the use of technological tools for learning, and the development of accessible and high-quality online educational resources. Furthermore, it is crucial to provide teachers with technical and pedagogical support so that they can design and implement effective teaching strategies in virtual environments.

Third, the results suggest that promoting students’ mobile self-efficacy could be an effective strategy for counteracting the negative effects of stress and enhancing academic engagement in Remote education. This could be achieved through interventions that provide successful experiences in using mobile technologies for learning, as well as feedback and social support that strengthen students’ confidence in their abilities. Additionally, it is important for educational institutions to invest in infrastructure and technological resources that facilitate access to and effective use of mobile devices for academic purposes.

Conclusions

This study examined the mediating role of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy in the influence of stress on the academic engagement of Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments. The findings provide new insights into the factors influencing students’ adaptation and academic success in the context of emergency remote education, with significant implications for research and educational practice in times of crisis.

First, the study demonstrated that the stress experienced by students in postpandemic virtual environments has a direct negative impact on both their academic engagement and their digital skills. This finding is consistent with previous research conducted in other contexts during the pandemic [2, 5] and underscores the need to address students’ mental and emotional well-being as a key aspect of promoting their participation and performance in remote education. Beyond confirming these relationships, our study extends existing knowledge by specifically examining how digital skills and mobile self-efficacy mediate these effects.

Second, the results revealed the crucial role of digital skills as a mediator between stress and academic engagement. This finding not only supports the importance of developing technological competencies for students in remote education but also suggests that these skills can act as a buffer against the negative impact of stress on their involvement in and satisfaction with their studies. This conclusion extends existing theoretical models on educational technology adoption, such as the technology acceptance model (TAM), by contextualizing these processes within the specific framework of emergency remote learning.

Third, the study identified mobile self-efficacy as another key mediating factor in the relationship between stress and the academic engagement of students in postpandemic virtual environments. This finding contributes to the emerging literature on the role of confidence in using mobile technologies for learning [64] and suggests that strengthening students’ mobile self-efficacy could be an effective strategy for counteracting the negative effects of stress and promoting greater academic engagement.

The identification of these mediating factors has significant implications for the design of educational interventions and institutional policies. Our results suggest that universities should consider integrating the development of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy into their curricula, not only as a response to crises but also as fundamental preparation for an increasingly digitalized workforce. This could include implementing digital literacy programs and workshops on the effective use of mobile technologies for learning and providing ongoing technical and pedagogical support for both students and faculty.

Additionally, the findings highlight the importance of addressing the digital divide not only in terms of access to technology but also in terms of digital competencies and confidence in using mobile tools for learning. This has important implications for educational policies aimed at promoting equity in higher education, especially in countries such as Peru, where inequalities in access to and use of digital technologies are pronounced [21].

It is important to recognize the study’s limitations. The cross-sectional design does not allow for definitive causal relationships to be established between the variables. Future studies could employ longitudinal designs to examine how these relationships evolve over time, especially in the transition to postpandemic hybrid learning models. Furthermore, the reliance on self-report measures could introduce biases in the responses. Future research could combine these measures with objective indicators of digital skills and academic engagement to obtain a more comprehensive perspective.

Despite these limitations, this study provides valuable evidence on the factors influencing the academic engagement of Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments. The findings lay the groundwork for the development of interventions and training programs tailored to hybrid learning contexts that promote the well-being and academic success of university students in postpandemic times.

In conclusion, this study significantly contributes to our understanding of how stress, digital skills, and mobile self-efficacy interact to influence students’ academic engagement in virtual learning environments. As higher education continues to evolve in response to the challenges posed by the pandemic and emerging trends in educational technology, these findings provide a solid foundation for developing educational strategies that promote students’ resilience and adaptability in the face of future disruptions.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Chiclayo, Perú

    Carmen Graciela Arbulú Pérez Vargas, Juan Pablo Moreno Muro, José Williams Pérez Delgado, Danicsa Karina Espino Carrasco & Amado Fernández Cueva

  2. Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Trujillo, Perú

    Benicio Gonzalo Acosta-Enriquez

Authors
  1. Carmen Graciela Arbulú Pérez Vargas
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  2. Juan Pablo Moreno Muro
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  3. José Williams Pérez Delgado
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  4. Danicsa Karina Espino Carrasco
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  5. Amado Fernández Cueva
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  6. Benicio Gonzalo Acosta-Enriquez
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Contributions

Conceptualization: Juan Pablo Moreno Muro, Carmen Graciela Arbulú Pérez Vargas, José Williams Pérez Delgado, Danicsa Karina Espino Carrasco; Methodology: Amado Fernández Cueva; Formal analysis: Benicio Acosta-Enriquez; Writing - preparation of the original draft: Carmen Graciela Arbulú Pérez Vargas, José Williams Pérez Delgado; Writing - revision and editing: Juan Pablo Moreno Muro, Danicsa Karina Espino Carrasco, Amado Fernández Cueva. All the authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carmen Graciela Arbulú Pérez Vargas.

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The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidad César Vallejo and by the University Council by resolution N° 0989–2024/UCV. Informed consent was obtained from all participants who participated in the study; if participants were under 18 years of age, parents or legal guardians provided informed consent. The intervention was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

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Arbulú Pérez Vargas, C.G., Moreno Muro, J.P., Pérez Delgado, J.W. et al. Mediating role of digital skills and mobile self-efficacy in the stress and academic engagement of Peruvian university students in postpandemic virtual environments. BMC Psychol 12, 481 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01982-5

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Keywords

BMC Psychology

ISSN: 2050-7283

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