Table 4 Multiple regression models for associations between the cumulative number of ACEs and self-rated academic performance, depression symptom severity, and suicidal ideations

Cumulative No. ACE*

 − 0.007 (− 0.031–0.016)

0.558

0.684 (0.531–0.837)

1.264 (1.090–1.465)

Age*

0.028 (0.001–0.055)

0.043

 − 0.312 (− 0.483 to − 0.140)

0.833 (0.594–1.169)

Gender

 Female

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Male

0.271 (0.140–0.401)

 < 0.001

 − 1.154 (− 1.988 to − 0.319)

1.050 (0.441–2.499)

Marital status

 Single

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Married/cohabiting

0.139 (− 0.155 to 0.434)

0.355

1.340 (− 0.540 to 3.220)

1

 Separated/divorced

0.429 (− 0.157 to 1.015)

0.151

 − 0.547 (− 4.285 to 3.191)

1.437 (0.093–22.125)

Region

 Central

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Eastern

0.180 (− 0.013 to 0.372)

0.067

 − 1.293 (− 2.521 to − 0.065)

0.176 (0.039–0.800)

 Northern

 − 0.369 (− 0.648 to − 0.090)

0.010

0.211 (− 1.568 to 1.990)

0.107 (0.008–1.420)

 Western

0.256 (0.099–0.412)

0.001

 − 0.713 (− 1.711 to 0.284)

0.168 (0.054–0.516)

Type of family

 Extended family

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Grandparent family

 − 0.215 (− 0.704 to 0.272)

0.386

4.069 (0.954–7.183)

2.817 (0.280–28.314)

 Nuclear family

 − 0.177 (− 0.324 to − 0.031)

0.018

 − 0.052 (− 0.987 to 0.884)

0.311 (0.118–0.818)

 Single parent family

0.138 (− 0.091 to 0.367)

0.238

 − 0.124 (− 1.589 to 1.341)

0.134 (0.026–0.684)

 Step family

0.019 (− 0.421 to 0.460)

0.933

2.839 (0.028–5.650)

0.504 (0.060–4.211)

Primary care provider

 Parent

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Step parent

0.025 (− 0.892 to 0.942)

0.957

2.463 (− 3.390 to 8.315)

1

 Uncle/Aunt

0.127 (− 0.157 to 0.411)

0.381

1.237 (− 0.576 to 3.050)

1.117 (0.179–6.963)

 Sibling

 − 0.048 (− 0.460 to 0.363)

0.820

1.078 (− 1.548 to 3.704)

1

 Guardian

0.249 (− 0.043 to 0.542)

0.095

 − 0.240 (− 2.108 to 1.627)

5.021 (1.094–23.047)

 Grandparent

0.136 (− 0.331 to 0.604)

0.568

 − 0.654 (− 3.637 to 2.328)

0.143 (0.017–1.236)

 NGO

0.112 (− 0.249 to 0.473)

0.543

2.515 (0.211–4.818)

1.123 (0.076–16.658)

 Self-sponsored

 − 0.028 (− 0.585 to 0.529)

0.921

5.971 (2.421–9.521)

8.449 (0.476–149.82)

No. family members

 0–6

Ref

Ref

Ref

 7–8

0.035 (− 0.160 to 0.230)

0.724

 − 0.261 (− 1.503 to 0.980)

2.140 (0.637–7.191)

 9–10

 − 0.038 (− 0.272 to 0.196)

0.748

 − 0.205 (− 1.697 to 1.286)

0.597 (0.116–3.068)

 11–25

 − 0.047 (− 0.332 to 0.236)

0.741

 − 1.226 (− 3.039 to 0.586)

2.460 (0.381–15.883)

No. children in family

 0–4

Ref

Ref

Ref

 5–6

 − 0.153 (− 0.347 to 0.041)

0.121

 − 0.115 (− 1.354 to 1.123)

0.428 (0.132–1.391)

 7–8

 − 0.164 (− 0.409 to 0.081)

0.189

1.193 (− 0.371 to 2.757)

1.597 (0.385–6.623)

 9–18

0.133 (− 0.445 to 0.178)

0.400

0.818 (− 1.169 to 2.806)

0.064 (0.007–0.562)

Birth position

 1st

Ref

Ref

Ref

 2nd

0.047 (− 0.136 to 0.231)

0.614

 − 0.309 (− 1.484 to 0.865)

0.335 (0.096–1.163)

 3rd

 − 0.017 (− 0.201 to 0.166)

0.855

 − 0.370 (− 1.543 to 0.803)

0.341 (0.103–1.130)

 4th and more

0.052 (− 0.128 to 0.232)

0.568

0.195 (− 0.952 to 1.343)

0.702 (0.239–2.063)

Mother’s education level

 None

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Primary

0.168 (− 0.060 to 0.397)

0.148

0.939 (− 0.517 to 2.396)

8.250 (1.602–42.492)

 Secondary

0.279 (0.044–0.514)

0.020

 − 0.264 (− 1.763 to 1.235)

2.518 (0.465–13.628)

 Tertiary

0.336 (0.098–0.575)

0.006

0.337 (− 1.184 to 1.859)

1.004 (0.183–5.519)

Father’s education level

 None

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Primary

 − 0.003 (− 0.266 to 0.259)

0.980

 − 0.614 (− 2.289 to 1.059)

0.124 (0.017–0.886)

 Secondary

 − 0.175 (− 0.425 to 0.075)

0.170

0.076 (− 1.520 to 1.672)

2.533 (0.534–12.013)

 Tertiary

 − 0.191 (− 0.429 to 0.046)

0.113

0.222 (− 1.291 to 1.737)

2.734 (0.608–12.286)

CGPA grading

 Third class

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Second class—lower

0.220 (− 0.212 to 0.653)

0.317

 − 1.853 (− 4.609 to 0.903)

0.192 (0.022–1.708)

 Second class—upper

0.948 (0.521–1.374)

 < 0.001

 − 2.647 (− 5.366 to 0.072)

0.034 (0.003–0.299)

 First class

1.533 (1.085–1.981)

 < 0.001

 − 2.546 (− 5.402 to 0.309)

0.094 (0.010–0.891)

 Preferred not reporting

0.796 (0.352–1.242)

 < 0.001

 − 1.810 (− 4.648 to 1.029)

0.136 (0.015–1.204)

Year of study*

0.083 (0.013–0.153)

0.019

 − 0.598 (− 1.043 to − 0.153)

1.182 (0.630–2.219)

Faculty of study (17)

 Applied sciences and technology

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Business and management studies

 − 0.073 (− 0.180 to 0.326)

0.571

1.282 (− 0.330 to 2.894)

0.815 (0.210–3.169)

 Computing & informatics

0.350 (0.073–0.626)

0.013

0.607 (− 1.155 to 2.370)

0.461 (0.100–2.119)

 Interdisciplinary studies

0.135 (− 0.410 to 0.681)

0.627

 − 0.829 (− 4.309 to 2.651)

1

 Medicine

 − 0.042 (− 0.267 to 0.181)

0.710

 − 0.923 (− 2.355 to 0.509)

0.052 (0.011–0.237)

 Science

0.209 (− 0.031 to 0.450)

0.088

0.442 (− 1.091 to 1.975)

0.559 (0.140–2.237)

Constant

1.851 (1.057–2.645)

 < 0.001

14.117 (9.051–19.183)

79.005 (0.109–57,308.87)

Observations

653

653

589

p values

 < 0.001

 < 0.001

 < 0.001

R²

0.3108

0.3107

0.2912