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Table 3 Bivariate analysis taking the COVID-19 stigma discrimination and self-stigma as the dependent variables

From: Stigma toward people with COVID-19 among the Lebanese population: a cross-sectional study of correlates and mediating effects

 

COVID-19 stigma discrimination

COVID-19 self-stigma

Mean (SD)

p value

Mean (SD)

p value

Ever diagnosed with COVID-19

 No

26.55 (5.30)

.001**

  

 Yes

23.59 (5.82)

   

 Effect Size Cohen’s d

 − .532

   

Ever tested for COVID-19

 No

27.09 (5.40)

 < .001***

  

 Yes

25.03 (5.22)

   

 Effect size Cohen’s d

 − .388

   

Gender

 Male

26.96 (5.11)

.185

32.38 (12.48)

.113

 Female

26.07 (5.49)

 

40.18 (12.16)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

 − .168

 

.633

 

Have a family member working in the medical field

 No

25.97 (5.34)

.091

37.50 (12.55)

.389

 Yes

26.98 (5.58)

 

41.15 (12.40)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

.185

 

.293

 

Ever being quarantined

 No

26.70 (5.52)

.072

35.17 (18.07)

.612

 Yes

25.72 (5.26)

 

39.25 (11.50)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

 − .182

 

.269

 

Marital status

 Single

25.88 (5.68)

.032*

39.90 (11.82)

.298

 Married

27.05 (4.73)

 

35.27 (14.11)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

.224

 

 − .356

 

Income level

 No income

26.29 (5.50)

.989

41.78 (14.15)

.091

 Low income

26.38 (5.11)

 

40.43 (8.75)

 

 Intermediate income

26.07 (6.20)

 

37.58 (9.19)

 

 High income

26.27 (4.80)

 

24.75 (12.12)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

.118

 

.138

 

Education level

  

–

 

 Primary

39.00 (00)

 < .001***

–

.277

 Complementary

24.20 (6.34)

 

–

 

 Secondary

26.62 (4.70)

 

44.40 (12.42)

 

 University

26.14 (5.37)

 

37.86 (12.42)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

.143

 

.145

 

 Employment status

 Medical field

28.22 (4.88)

.001**

26.80 (7.76)

.012*

 Non-medical field

25.88 (5.44)

 

40.31(12.16)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

 − .453

 

1.324

 

Religion

 Christian

26.49 (4.41)

.004**

31.00 (8.49)

.02*

 Muslim

26.28 (5.61)

 

43.04 (11.91)

 

 Druze

28.24 (5.96)

 

23.00 (13.86)

 

 Refuse to answer

23.66 (4.12)

 

36.33 (9.24)

 

 Other

19.50 (3.54)

 

35.50 (.70)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

.244

 

.287

 

Had an indirect contact with COVID-19 a patient

 No

26.94 (5.55)

.062

27.33 (15.29)

.043*

 Do not know

25.93 (5.58)

 

38.50 (7.84)

 

 Yes

25.60 (5.16)

 

41.22 (11.88)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

.189

 

.132

 

Had a direct contact with a COVID-19 patient

 No

26.44 (5.36)

.017*

32.75 (13.86)

.129

 Do not know

28.27 (5.26)

 

43.50 (8.29)

 

 Yes

25.39 (5.44)

 

40.48 (11.92)

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

.147

 

.109

 

Had a direct contact with a suspected COVID-19 individual

 No

26.67 (5.69)

.032*

33.95 (12.68)

.057

 Do not know

27.17 (5.07)

 

42.00 (4.24)

 

 Yes

25.22 (4.80)

 

43.26 (11.25)

 

History of COVID-19 in the family

 No

27.12 (5.33)

 < .001***

37.22 (15.71)

.589

 I don’t know

27.60 (4.58)

 

–

 

 Yes

23.95 (5.08)

 

38.68 (11.65)

 
 

.132

 

.130

 

Time spent on COVID-19 information sources/day

 0–30 min

25.99 (5.15)

.089

37.69 (10.79)

.544

  > 30 min

27.08 (6.25)

 

44.33 (20.16))

 

 Effect size Cohen’s d

.19

 

.411

 
 

r

p value

r

p value

Fear of COVID-19 scale

.127

.010*

.193

.227

COVID-19 Anxiety scale

.118

.017*

.115

.475

Practice total scale

 − .069

.163

 − .096

.551

Attitude total scale

 − .014

.772

.106

.509

Knowledge score

 − .109

.028*

 − .249

.117

  1. Statistical tests used: Student’s t-test or ANOVA F tests were used for the association between categorical variables with two or more levels and the stigma continuous scale. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to measure the association between continuous variables
  2. SD standard deviation, r correlation coefficient
  3. * < .05; ** < .01; *** < .001