Table 1 The list of studies, corresponding research design, sample size, intervention, dependent variables, duration, population, and major findings

1

Carson et al. [48]

Randomized wait-list controlled design

44 (E = 22, C = 22)

Mindfulness-Based Relationship Enhancement

(i) Relationsi)hip Satisfaction, (ii)Autonomy, (iii)Relatedness, (iv)Closeness, (v)Acceptance of partner, (vi)Relationship distress, (vii)Optimism, (viii)Spirituality, (ix)Individual relaxation, (x) Psychological distress

Eight weekly sessions and a full-day retreat

Happy and non-distressed couples

MBI has beneficially affected all variables assessed, and maintained the effect at a three-month follow-up

2

de Vibe et al. [38]

Longitudinal for six years

288(E = 144, C = 144)

Abridged Mindfulness-Based Stress Programme (MBSR)

(i) Dispositional mindfulness, (ii)Coping, (iii) Well-Being

Seven weeks (15 h) and booster sessions twice yearly

Medical and psychology students

At 6-year follow-up, participants reported better well-being, mindfulness, and problem-focused coping and decreased avoidance focused-coping, irrespective of low intervention adherence

3

Amutio et al. [37]

Longitudinal for one year with randomized controlled design (quasi-experiment)

42 (E = 21, C = 21)

MBSR based on the psycho-educational model of Krasner et al. (2009)

(i) Mindfulness, (ii)Relaxation states, (iii)Heart rate

Eight weeks

Physicians

MBSR has improved mindfulness and relaxation states (including positive emotional states, such as at ease/peace, renewal, energy, optimism, happiness, acceptance, and transcendence) and decreased heart rate. At one-year follow-up effect size improved again

4

Bhayee et al. [46]

Randomized active controlled trial

26 (E = 13, C = 13)

Neurofeedback assisted, technology-supported mindfulness training (NtsMT)

(i) Attention, (ii) Well-being

Six weeks, 10 min of daily practice

Healthy, community-dwelling adults

NtsMT moderately improved attention and well-being

5

Flook et al.  [32]

Randomized controlled design

68 (E = 30, C = 38)

Mindfulness-based Kindness curriculum

(i) Social competence, (ii)Sharing, (iii) Delay of gratification, (iv) Cognitive flexibility, (v) Inhibitory control, (vi) Academic performance

12 weeks; 20–30 min sessions twice a week

Pre-school children

Improved social competence, academic performance, delay of gratification, and cognitive flexibility

6

Rasanen et al. [39]

Randomized waitlist controlled design

68 (E = 33, C = 35)

Guided seven-week online Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (iACT)

(i) Well-being, (ii) Life satisfaction, (iii) Self-esteem, (iv) Mindfulness, (v) Stress, (vi) Depression, (vii) Anxiety, (viii)Psychological flexibility, (ix) Sense of coherence

Seven weeks: Two face-to-face meetings and five-weeks iACT

Distressed university students

Well-being, life satisfaction, and mindfulness increased; stress and depression decreased. Benefits were maintained at follow-up after 12 months

7

Fredrickson et al. [53]

Field experiment

139 (E = 67, C = 72)

Loving-Kindness Meditation (LKM)

(i) Mindfulness, (ii) Trait hope, (iii) Savoring beliefs, (iv) Optimism, (v) Ego resilience, (vi) Psychological well-being, (vii) Dyadic adjustment, (viii) Positive relations,, (ix) Illness symptoms, (x) Sleep quality, (xi)Satisfaction with life, (xii) Depression, (xiii)Differential emotions, (xiv) Time varying emotion experiences

Seven weeks: six 60 min group sessions, asked to practice at home, at least 5 days per week, with the guided recordings

Working adults

LKM enhanced experience of positive emotions which benefittedpersonal resources including mindfulness, purpose in life, social support, and illness symptoms. Changes in personal resources predicted improved life satisfaction and reduced depression

8

Yela et al. [52]

Quasi-experimental pre-post design

61 (high adherence = 30, low adherence = 31)

Mindful Self-Compassion

(i) Self Compassion, (ii) Mindfulness, (iii) Well-being, (iv) Anxiety, (iv) Depression

Eight weeks: 2.5 h session once a week

Masters students in clinical and health psychology

High adherence group reported better self-compassion, mindfulness, and well-being

9

Pogrebtsova et al. [56]

daily diary randomized controlled trial

106 (E = 36, C = 36, standard of care C = 34

Combined mindful re-appraisal intervention

(i) Positive and negative experiences, (ii) Positive re-appraisal, (iii) Decentering, (iv) Curiosity, (v) Optimism

Five-day

Undergraduate university students

Experimental group reported reduced negative affect and marginally higher positive affect

10

Smith et al. [59]

Longitudinal quasi experimental design for 2.5-years (two year course and six months follow up)

31 (E = 17, C = 14)

Dharma in Daily Life (DIDL) 30 min per day, six days per week

(I) Quality of life, (ii) Subjective well-being, (iii) Wellbeing, (iv) Valuing, (v) Psychological flexibility, (vi) Mindfulness, (vii) Cognitive fusion

30 min per day, six days a week, for the two year course period and a six month follow-up period

Adults from meditation groups

DIDL improved subjective well-being and mindfulness. Despite the intervention condition, frequency of meditation predicted psychological flexibility, mindfulness, well-being, and valuing

11

Sorensen et al. [54]

Active controlled trial (3 × 3 mixed design)

78 (Convergence = 28, LKM = 26, Music = 24)

Convergence' or LKM or Music for three 2-h group sessions

(1) Mindfulness (2) Self Compassion (3)Fears of Compassion (4) Stress and Anxiety (5) Mental well-being

Three weeks, once weekly

Adults from the general population

All three conditions produced equal benefits on all outcome measures with small effect sizes. No greater impact of Convergence found. Amount of home practice positively correlated with mindfulness and self-compassion at four-week follow-up

12

Devcich et al. [40]

Active controlled pilot study

91 (Mindfulness = 45, Emotional literacy = 46)

Pause, breathe, smile or emotional literacy program

(1) Well-being -hedonia and eudaimonia (2)Mindfulness

One hour weekly sessions for eight weeks

School children

Both conditions improved well-being and only experimental group reported higher mindfulness, post-intervention

13

Ivtzan et al.  [58]

Randomized wait-list controlled trial

168 (E = 53, C = 115)

Online Positive Mindfulness Program (PMP)

(1) Eudaimonic and hedonic well-being, (2)Stress, (3)Depression, (4)Mindfulness, (5)Gratitude, (6) Self-compassion, (7) PWB Autonomy, (8) Self efficacy, (9) Meaning in life, (10) Compassion for others, (11)Appreciation for the present moment

Eight-week—12 min audio for daily meditation and 8–10 min video once a week

Citizens from 20 counties, recruited through online forums and social networks

PMP beneficially affected all dependent variables and sustained the effect for 10 out of 11 variables at a one-month follow-up

14

Huppert & Johnson [41]

non-randomized controlled trial

134 (E = 78, C = 56)

Four mindfulness classes

(i) Mindfulness, (ii) Resilience, (iii )Well-being, (iv) Big 5 personality

four 40-min sessions, once a week

14 and 15 year old boys

No between-group difference found. Experimental group reported mindfulness and well-being positively correlated with duration of practice

15

Coatsworth et al. [49]

Randomized controlled comparative effectiveness study design

432 families (E = 154, AC = 160, C = 118)

Mindfulness-Enhanced Strengthening Families Program(

(i) Interpersonal mindfulness in parenting, (ii) Parent-Youth Relationship, (iii) Youth behavior management, (iv) Parent well-being

Once per week for seven weeks

Families of 6th and 7th grade students of four consecutive years

MSFP and a control condition SFP 10–14 showed similar effects on dependent variables. MSFP improved and sustained the effect of SFP on some areas, especially the experience of fathers

16

Vich et al. [57]

Randomized controlled trial

128 (E = 75, C = 42)

Relational Mindfulness Training (RMT)

(i) self compassion, (ii) compassion, (iii) stress, (iv) mindfulness, (v) happiness

Eight week—two hour sessions per week and one six hour session in a weekend

Management students

RMT showed long-term impact on self-compassion, stress, and mindfulness; and short-term impact on compassion and subjective happiness

17

Champion et al. [47]

Pilot randomized controlled trial

62 (E = 29, C = 33)

Headspace app introductory program—Foundation 1 to 3; 30 sessions

(i) Life satisfaction, (ii) Stress, (iii) Resilience, (iv) Social impairment, (v) Depression, (vi) Hypochondriasis, (vii) Anxiety, (viii) Enjoyment & experience

30 sessions with minimum 10 min per session. Option to choose up to 15 to 20 min during level 2 and 3, respectively

Management and economics students

Improved life satisfaction, stress, and resilience. Highest increased on day-10 that dropped moderately by day-30

18

Nyklicek & Kuijpers [28]

Randomized wait-list controlled trial

57

MBSR

(i) Stress, (ii) Vital exhaustion, (iii) Positive affect, (iv) Negative affect, (v) Quality of life, (vi) Mindfulness, (vii) Mindfulness in daily life

Eight weeks—eight weekly sessions of 150 min; and from sixth week an additional six hour session; minimum 40 min of daily practice

Distressed adults

Reduced stress and vital exhaustion, and improved positive affect, quality of life, and mindfulness. Mindfulness, at least partially mediate the impact of MBSR on variables, especially stress, and quality of life

19

Rodriguez-Carvajal etl al. [55]

Non-randomized controlled trial

73 (E = 36, C = 37)

Mindfulness Integrative Model (MIM)

(i) Mindfulness, (ii) Self-compassion, (iii) Positive states of mind

Three weeks—19 sessions

Adults from non-clinical general population

Significant difference in experimental group with large effect size

20

Kappen et al. [50]

Randomized controlled trial

113 (E = 56, C-57)

Online mindfulness program

(i)Relationship satisfaction, (ii) Partner acceptance, (iii) Trait mindfulness

12 day

Adults in a romantic relationship for at least one year recruited through social networking sites

Relationship satisfaction and partner acceptance increased for both groups. Mindfulness significantly improved for low baseline-scorers of experimental condition alone

21

Neff & Germer [51]

Pilot

21

MSC

(i)Self compassion, (ii) Mindfulness, (iii) Connectedness, (iv) Happiness, (v) Life satisfaction, (vi) Depression, (vii) Anxiety, (viii) Stress

Eight weekly sessions and one 2-h session per week

General population recruited through online media

Improved self-compassion, mindfulness, and well-being outcomes

22

Neff & Germer [51]

Randomized controlled trial

52 (E = 25, C = 27)

MSC

(i) Self compassion, (ii) Mindfulness, (iii)Connectedness, (iv)Happiness, (v) Life satisfaction, (vi) Depression, (vii) Anxiety, (viii) Stress, (ix) Compassion for others, (x) Avoidance

Eight weekly sessions and one 2-h session per week

General population recruited through online media

Experimental group reported higher self-compassion, mindfulness, and well-being outcomes, that were maintained at 6-th and one-year follow-ups